and magnificent city. Kinneir estimates the population at 200,000, and it is the greatest emporium of inland commerce in the Persian empire, being the chief medium of communication with India and Cabul on one side and Turkey on the other.

Teheran, the present capital of Persia and residence of the king, is situated 300 miles N. of Ispahan and 65 S. of the Caspian sea. It was selected for the capital from political considerations, the situation being convenient in carrying on war with the Russians, now the most formidable foes of Persia. It still wears the aspect of a new city, and does not contain a permanent population of more than 10,000 or 15,000, though the troops, when present, raise it to 60,000.

Tauris, 400 miles N. N. W. of Ispahan, in lon. 46° 31′ E. lat. 38° 20′ N. is a large city, which contained according to Chardin, more than a century ago, 550,000 inhabitants, but it is now greatly reduced from its former grandeur, and Mr. Morier estimated the population in 1808 at 250,000.

Shiras, the capital of the province of Fars, and at seve ralperiods of the whole empire, is 160 miles S. of Ispahan, in a plain between the mountains. The environs of Shiras are almost unrivalled in point of beauty and fertility. They are laid out to a great extent in magnificent gardens, the flowers and fruits of which form a favorite theme of eastern poetry. The city contains 40,000 inhabitants, and carries on an extensive commerce.

Bushire, the principal sea-port of the kingdom, is on a peninsula which projects into the Persian gulf, 100 miles W. S. W. of Shiras. Considerable trade is carried on here in the export of Persian commodities and the import of India and English goods. The population is about 5,000. Gombroon, on the gulf of Ormus, in lon. 56° E. was famous during the last century as the port of Shiras and of all the south of Persia, but its trade and population have now very much declined. Ormus, situated on a small barren island in the straits of the same name, a little to the east of Gombroon, was formerly one of the main seats of Portuguese power, and the most splendid and celebrated city in Asia, being the emporium of the trade of India with Persia, and even with Europe, its commodities being carried up the Euphrates and across the Syrian desert; but it is now in ruins and contains only 500 inhabitants.

Kerman, 150 miles E. of Shiras, was formerly one of the proudest cities of Persia, and celebrated for trade and manufactures, but the population is now reduced to 20,000. Casbin, 240 miles N. of Ispahan, has considerable trade and manufactures and 60,000 inhabitants. Meschid, the capital of Khorassan, 1,000 miles N. E. of Ispahan, carries on considerable trade with Cabul and Independent Tartary and has 50,000 inhabitants. Reshd, the capital of Ghilan, is on the shore of the Caspian sea, and is engaged in commerce with Astrachan. Erivan, the capital of the province of Erivan or Persian Armenia, is a very strong town in lon. 44° 35′ E. lat. 40° 20′ N. It has been repeatedly besieged by the Russians and Turks.

Ruins.] The ruins of Persepolis, the ancient capital of Persia, are situated in a fine fertile plain encircled by mountains in the form of an amphitheatre, 30 miles N. N. E. of Shiras. These majestic ruins appear to be solely those of the great palace of Darius, which was burnt by Alexander in an interval of frenzy. This superb edifice has the walls of three of its sides still standing. The front extends 600 paces from N. to S. while the side reaching from E. to W. extends 390 paces. The columns, staircases, images and relievos are exceedingly magnificent.

There is a large mass of ruins, supposed to be those of the aneient Susa, 170 miles W. S. W. of Ispahan. They occupy an immense space, extending in one direction about 12 miles, and consisting like the ruins of Babylon of hillocks of earth and rubbish, covered with broken pieces of brick and colored tile. One of these mounds is a mile in circumference, and nearly a hundred feet high; and another, though not quite so high, has double the circumference.

Population.] The population is estimated by Hassel at 18,000,000. It consists partly of Persians settled in towns and villages, and partly of Iliats, a race of war-like and wandering shepherds, whose habits resemble those of the Tartars. Many tracts bearing traces of former extensive culture, are now covered by these Nomadic hordes; the husbandman, ruined by war and oppression, having deserted his fields, while the Iliats have descended from the mountains to occupy his place.

Religion] The Persians are Mahometans of the sect of Schiites or of the followers of Ali, and are on that account viewed by the Turks with still greater abhorrence than even Chistians. They are not intolerant, except towards the Guebres or worshippers of fire, who are probably rendered odious to the modern rulers of Persia by connecting with their faith an attachment to its ancient laws and political system. This unfortunate race is now almost entirely extirpated. The Persians have many superstitious notions, having joined those peculiar to the Mahometan faith with those of the ancient worshippers of fire. They have the utmost confidence in charms, talismans, lucky and unlucky days, and sentences of Ali written upon parchment.

Character. The Persians are gay, polished, deceitful, profuse and skilful in the use of flattery, fond of show and ornament, eager in acquiring property and lavish in expending it. The English call them the French of the east. Olivier, who resided long both among the Persians and Turks, remarks a striking contrast between the two nations. The former are polite, active, and industrious, while the latter are brutal and slothful. He allows to the Turk, however, magnanimity, self-esteem, steadiness in friendship and gratitude; all which are wanting in the Persian.

Literature.] The Persians are the most learned people of the east; the love of poetry and the sciences may even be considered as their ruling passion. In the former their fame is decidedly superior to that of any eastern nation, the names of Hafiz,

Ferdusi and Sadi, being classic even in Europe. The late distractions of the kingdom have diminished the number of students at the colleges, but poetry is still cultivated with the same enthusiasm as ever.

Government. The government is an absolute despotism. The shah or king has always been considered the vicegerent of the prophet, and entitled to the most implicit obedience. He is absolute master of the lives and property of his subjects; and the first man in the kingdom may at his command be instantly stript of his dignities and publicly bastinadoed. The wandering tribes, however, are ruled by their own khans, who are independent in the management of their internal concerns, and merely pay military service when required.

Army.] Persia has scarcely any thing which can be called a standing army. The most efficient force consists of the royal slaves, 3,000 in number, a considerable part of whom have recently been disciplined after the European manner. The royal guards, 10,000 in number, are merely a body of militia, who have lands assigned them around the capital, and are ready to be called out at a moments warning. The Shah's main dependence, however, is on the khans of the wandering tribes, who can furnish by a great effort an army of 150,000 or 200,000 men. It consists entirely of cavalry and receives no regular pay, but in return has ample license to plunder.

Manufactures.] The Persians excel in many manufactures, particularly in works of ornament and splendor. Those rich carpets which we call Turkey, from the channel by which we receive them, are manufactured by the Iliats or wandering tribes in the plains of Persia. The Persians excel particularly in brocade and embroidery. Porcelain, nearly equal to that of China, and shawls, similar though inferior to those of Cashmere, are also enumerated among the manufactures of Persia.

Commerce.] Trade in this empire is at a very low ebh. It has no port on the Persian gulf except Bushire, and the small ma rine which it once maintained there is entirely annihilated. The Caspian never was, and never can be the seat of any extensive trade; since, besides its difficult navigation, the only country with which it affords a communication is Russia. Even this channel is nearly closed by the attitude of habitual hostility in which the two powers are now placed towards each other. The principal commerce of Persia, therefore, is carried on by caravans with Turkey on one side, and Tartary and India on the other.

CABUL.

Situation and Extent.] Cabul or Cabulistan is bounded N. by Independent Tartary, from which it it separated by the Hindoo Coosh and Parapomisan mountains; E. by Hindoostan, from which it is separated by the Indus; S. by Beloochistan; and W. by Per. sia. Besides the country included within these boundaries, the province of Balk in Tartary, Cashmere and several other countries on the east of the Indus, and a part of Beloochistan are in a greater or less degree dependent on the king of Cabul. In its greatest extent the kingdom stretches from 24° to 37° N. lat. and from 60° to 77° E. lon. and contains according to Hassel more than 800,000 square miles.

Face of the Country.] The Hindoo Coosh and Parapomisan mountains run along the whole northern frontier. The Hindoo Coosh is a very lofty range, many of its summits being covered with perpetual snow, and some of them are scarcely inferior in height to those of the Himmaleh range. A branch of the Hindoo Coosh, called the ridge of Solimaun, proceeds in a southerly direction and sinks gradually into the plains of Sinde, at the mouth of the Indus. These two ranges, with branches striking off from them, traverse nearly the whole kingdom, except the tracts near the southern and western frontiers which are occupied by vast plains and sandy deserts.

Rivers.] The Indus is the principal river and forms the natural boundary on the side of Hindoostan. It receives very few important tributaries from this country. The largest is the Cabul, which rises in the mountains of Hindoo Coosh and passing by the city of Cabul joins the Indus at Attock. The Helmond waters the western part of the kingdom, and falls, beyond its frontier, into the lake of Zerrah or Durra.

Climate.] The climate exhibits the most striking varieties, in consequence of the abruptness with which the mountain ranges often rise from the deep plains beneath. A few hours journey carries the traveller from a place where snow never falls to another where it never melts. In some of the plains persons are often killed by the intensity of the hot wind, while regions of eternal ice are towering above.

Soil and Productions.] The soil is nearly as various as the climate. In well watered plains of moderate elevation, as those of Peshawer and Candahar, it is exceedingly fertile and produces two crops in the year. The loftier part of the mountain chains is of course condemned to perpetual ruggedness and sterility, while in the level districts of the south and west extensive deserts are produced by the absence of water. Agriculture is followed with assiduity. The grand process upon which its success depends is that of irrigation, which is practised in every part of

the kingdom. Wheat and barley are the staple productions. Fruits and vegetables of various kinds are also abundant.

Chief Towns.] Cabul, the capital and residence of the Shah, is on the river of the same name. It is a place of great trade, being resorted to by the Hindoos, Tartars, and even the Chinese. The population is estimated at 200,000.

Peshawur, 150 miles E. of Cabul, is situated on several small streams which fall into Cabul river a few miles north of the city. It is occasionally the residence of the king and court, and is inhabited by persons from all parts of the east. The population is estimated at 100,000.

Candahar, situated on the Helmond, in lat. 33° N. lon. 65° 30′ E. is a large town, well fortified, and standing on the great road between Persia and India, has a flourishing trade.

Herat is situated also on the high-road from Persia and Tartary to Hindoostan, and the route of all the caravans from time immemorial has passed through it; but it has also been on the route of all the invading armies, and has been often plundered and burnt. The king of Persia has recently sent an army against it. Ghizni, formerly the capital of a powerful empire extending from the river Ganges to the borders of Persia, has now a small population and scarcely retains a vestige of its former grandeur. Balk, a very ancient town on a branch of the Oxus, 250 miles N. E. of Herat, has 6,000 inhabitants.

Population. The population of the kingdom and its dependent territories, according to Elphinstone, is 14,000,000, of which number 4,300,000 are Afghans, 1,400,000 Belooches, 1,200,000 Tartars, 1,500,000 Tadschiks and Parsees, and 5,700,000 Hindoos. The Tadschiks are a mixture of Persians and Arabs, and constitute the settled population of Persia and of a great part of Cabulistan. The Parsees or Guebres are fire-worshippers, who in the seventh century were expelled from Persia, their original country, by the Mahometans, and found refuge in Cabulistan and Hindoostan, where they live in a very quiet, inoffensive manner, and have become quite wealthy by the industry and sagacity with which they prosecute commercial concerns.

Religion.] The Hindoos remain true to the religion of their native country. The Parsees have a religion of their own. They worship one supreme being, but reverence the sun, stars and fire as symbolical of him. Zoroaster is their law-giver and the Zendavesta their law-book. All the other classes of the population are Mahometans; the Afghans and Belooches are of the Soonny sect, but the Tadschiks are Schiites.

Government and Army.] The Afghans are the ruling people, and the khan of their principal tribe is the king of the whole country. The government, however, is by no means of that simple structure which is usual in Asiatic monarchies. Over the great towns, indeed, and the country in their immediate vicinity, the authority of the sovereign is direct and almost supreme, but the rest of the nation is divided into tribes, each under its own khan, who is nearly independent. Alliances are formed and