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and pauses, between sentences and their parts, are marked by points. But though the several articulate sounds, are pretty fully and exactly denoted by letters of known and determinate power; yet the several pauses, which are used in a just pronunciation of discourse, are very imperfectly expressed by points. For the different degrees of connexion between the several parts of sentences, and the different pauses in a just pronunciation, which express those degrees of connexion according to their proper value, admit of great variety: But the whole number of points, which we have to express this variety, amounts only to four. Hence it is, that we are under a necessity of expressing pauses of the same quantity, on different occasions, by different points; and more frequently, of expressing pauses of different quantity by the same points.

From this view of the subject, it is evident that the doctrine of Punctuation must be very imperfect. Few precise rules can be given, which will hold, without exception, in all cases; but much must be left to the judgment and taste of the writer. On the other hand, if a greater number of marks were invented, to express all the possible, different pauses of pronunciation; the doctrine of them would be very perplexed and difficult, and the use of them would rather embarrass than assist the reader. It remains therefore, that we be content with the Rules of Punctuation, laid down with as much exactness as the nature of the subject will admit: such as may serve for a general direction, to be accommodated to different occasions; and to be supplied, where deficient, by the writer's judgment.

The precise quantity or duration of each pause cannot be defined; for it varies with the time of the whole. The same composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or a slower time; but the proportion between the pauses should be ever invarible.

In order more clearly to determine the proper application of the points, we must distinguish between an imperfect phrase, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence.

An imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not amount to a proposition or sentence: as, "Therefore; in haste; studious of praise."

A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite verb, expressed or implied: as, "Temperance preserves health."

A compound sentence has more than one subject, or one finite verb, either expressed or understood; or it consists of two or more simple sentences connected together: as, "Good nature mends and beautifies all objects;" " Virtue refines the affections, but vice debases them."

In a sentence, the subject and the verb, or either of them, may be accompanied with several adjuncts: as, the object, the end, the circumstance of time, place, manner, and the like: and the subject or verb may be either immediately connected with them, or mediately; that is, by being connected with something which is connected with some other, and so on, as, "The mind, unoccupied with useful knowledge, becomes a magazine of trifles and follies."

Members of sentences may be divided into simple and compound members. See page 141.

CHAPTER I.

OF THE COMMA.

THE Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence, which, though very closely connected in sense and construction, require a pause between them.

RULE I.

See Vol. ii. Part 4. Exercises. Chap. 1. Rule 1.

WITH respect to a simple sentence, the several words of which it consists have so near a relation to each other, that, in general, no points are requisite, except a full stop at the end of it: as, "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." Every part of matter swarms with living crea

tures."

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A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the nominative case is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, may admit of a pause immediately before the verb: as, "The good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the English language." "To be totally indifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character."

RULE II.

See Vol. ii. part. 4. Exercises. Chap. 1. Rule 2.

WHEN the connexion of the different parts of a simple sentence, is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually introduced before the beginning, and at the end of this

phrase: as, "I remember, with gratitude, his goodness to "His work is, in many respects, very imperfect. It is, therefore, not much approved." But when these interruptions are slight and unimportant, the comma is better omitted: as, "Flattery is certainly pernicious;" "There is surely a pleasure in beneficence."

In the generality of compound sentences, there is frequent occasion for commas. This will appear from the following rules; some of which apply to simple, as well as to compound

sentences.

RULE III.

See Vol. ii. Part 4. Exercises, Chap. 1. Rule 3.

WHEN two or more nouns occur in the same construction, they are parted by a comma: as, "Reason, virtue, answer one great aim :" "The husband, wife and children, suffered extremely:"*"They took away their furniture, clothes, and stock in trade:" "He is alternately supported by his father, his uncle, and his elder brother."

From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard to two nouns closely connected by a conjunction: as, "Virtue and vice form a strong contrast to each other;" "Libertines. call religion bigotry or superstition;" "There is a natural difference between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly. But if the parts connected are not short, a comma may be inserted, though the conjunction is expressed as, "Romances may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives to evil;" "Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies, and the vigour of our minds.'

RULE IV.

See Vol. ii. Part 4. Exercises, Chap. 1. Rule 4.

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Two or more adjectives belonging to the same substantive, are likewise separated by commas: as, 66 Plain, honest truth, wants no artificial covering;" "David was a brave, wise, and pious man;" "A woman, gentle, sensible, well educated, and religious;""The most innocent pleasures are the sweetest, the most rational, the most affecting, and the most lasting."

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* As a considerable pause in pronunciation, is necessary between the last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it. But as no pause is allowable between the last adjective and the noun, under Rule IV. the comma is there properly omitted. See WALKER'S Elements of Elocution.

But two adjectives, immediately connected by a conjunction, are not separated by a comma: as, "True worth is modest and retired;" "Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform and consistent." "We must be wise or fool

ish; there is no medium."

RULE V.

See Vol. ii. Part 4. Exercises. Chap. 1. Rule 5.

Two or more verbs, baving the same nominative case, and immediately following one another, are also separated by commas: as, "Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity:" "In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss."

Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an exception to the above rule: as, "The study of natural history expands and elevates the mind;" Whether we eat or drink, labour or sleep, we should be moderate."

Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule, and exception: as, "A man, fearing, serving, and loving his Creator;" "He was happy in being loved, esteemed, and respected;" "By being admired and flattered, we are often corrupted."

RULE VI.

See Vol. ii. Part 4. Exercises. Chap. 1. Rule 6.

Two or more adverbs immediately succeeding one another, must be separated by commas: as, "We are fearfully, wonderfully framed ;" "Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously, in what we undertake."

But when two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are not parted by the comma: as, "Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously;" "There is no middle state; we must live virtuously or viciously."

RULE VII.

See Vol. ii. Part. 4. Excrcises. Chap. 1. Rule 7.

WHEN participles are followed by something that depends on them, they are generally separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma: as, "The king, approving the plan, put it in execution;" "His talents, formed for great enterprises,

could not fail of rendering him conspicuous;" "All mankind compose one family, assembled under the eye of one common Father."

RULE VIII.

See Vol. ii. Part 4. Exercises. Chap. 1. Rule 8.

WHEN a conjunction is divided by a phrase or sentence, from the verb to which it belongs, such intervening phrase has usually a comma at each extremity: as, "They set out early, and, before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place."

RULE IX.

See Vol. ii. Part. 4. Exercises. Chap. 1. Rule 9.

EXPRESSIONS in a direct address, are separated from the

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rest of the sentence by commas: as, My son, give me thy heart;" "I am obliged to you, my friends, for your many favours."

RULE X.

See Vol. ii. Part. 4. Exercises. Chap. 1. Rule 10.

THE case or nominative absolute, and the infinitive mood absolute, are separated by commas from the body of the sentence: as, "His father dying, he succeeded to the estate;" "At length, their ministry performed, and race well run, they left the world in peace;" "To confess the truth, I was much

in fault."

RULE XI.

See Vol. ii. Part. 4. Exercises. Chap. 1. Rule 11.

Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other nouns in the same case, by way of explication or illustration, when accompanied with adjuncts, are set off by commas: as, “Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge;" "The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun.

But if such nouns are single, or only form a proper name, they are not divided: as, "Paul the apostle ;""The emperor Antoninus wrote an excellent book."

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