It was held, accordingly, that, if intellectual knowledge (illuminatio) were correctly imparted, it would assuredly direct the will aright. Luther had placed the Bible above dogma. The order was now reversed, and a creed-bound Church neglected the Bible in home, school, university, and service. Theological controversy was both frequent and acrimonious. Lay rights were subordinated to pastoral prerogatives. Matters were somewhat better in the Reformed Church, and its presbyterian form of government gave a larger place to the laity; but even here the taint of legalism and the spirit of self-righteousness were only too often in evidence. Upon this clouded sky Pietism arose, bringing a clearer and purer light. Beginning modestly in an attempt to improve the religious life of Frankfort, it spread rapidly through Middle and N. Germany. Among the forerunners of the spirit rather than the system of Pietism may be numbered Jakob Boehme (q.v.) the mystic, Johann Arndt, and Theophilus Grossgebauer, but the history of Pietism proper is almost entirely bound up with the life, work, and personality of the two great leaders who together and successively gave it inspiration and guided its course, namely P. J. Spener and A. H. Francke. Within the span of their lives may be measured the rise, the growth, and at least the beginning of the decline of Pietism. To sketch their biographies is therefore, in the main, to recount the history of the Pietistic movement. than denouncing their errors, sympathetic treatment should be given to unbelievers, to win them, if possible, to truth; (5) that theological training should be reorganized, and emphasis laid on devotion rather than on doctrine; and (6) that preaching should be more practical and less rhetorical. Spener followed up his contentions in Das geistliche Priesterthum (Frankfort, 1677) and Allgemeine Gottesgelehrtheit (do. 1680). In spite of the opposition of the orthodox, Spener's influence increased, and in 1686 he became court chaplain at Dresden. Here he offended the elector by rebuking his vices, but refused to resign his post. The Saxon court met the difficulty by obtaining for him the rectorship of St. Nicholas, Berlin, with the title Consistorial Inspector. Here, in a court where the tendency was rationalistic, Spener's true piety waz honoured and appreciated. In 1694 the University of Halle was founded, and Spener assisted in nominating the professors. Spener's coadjutor in the affairs of Halle was Christian Thomasius (1655-1728), the jurist and publicist. Thomasius is an interesting figure. A disciple of Hugo Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf, he had been professor of Natural Law at Leipzig. His views were provocative. He attacked traditional methods in law and theology alike, advo cated toleration for all, even for such outlaws as witches and atheists, and advised mixed marriages between Lutheran and Calvinist. Denounced from the pulpits and forbidden to write or lecture, Thomasius had to flee to Berlin to escape arrest. 3. History of the movement; lives of Spener Here he received a welcome, and, taking part in and Francke.-(a) Philipp Jakob Spener, the the formation of Halle University, became its father of Pietism,' was born at Rappoltsweiler, rector and professor of Law. In regard to ecclesiAlsace, in 1635. Trained under the influence of astical matters, Thomasius contended that a sharp a devout godmother, he was impressed early in life distinction must be made between that which is by reading Arndt's Vom wahren Christenthum inward and that which is external in religion. (Brunswick, 1606-09). Whilst a student at Strass- Questions of piety and of doctrine are inward. burg, he found his father in Christ' in Johann The State should therefore leave them alone. In Schmid. Taking his master's degree by a dispu- the external matters of worship and Church life, tation against Hobbes's philosophy, he continued however, the State may rightly interfere, if neceshis studies at Basel, Geneva, Stuttgart, and sary, to promote the general wellbeing of the Tübingen. At Geneva the influence of A. Leger country and to maintain peace and order. Thus and Jean de Labadie, the ex-Jesuit, combined with rendering to Cæsar and to God the things which the piety, mysticism, and strict discipline of the were respectively theirs, Thomasius reconciled his place to shape his character. At Tübingen he own broad sympathies with his position as a State read Grossgebauer's Wächterstimme aus dem ver- servant. Personally he was in the main orthodox, wüsteten Zion (Frankfort, 1661). In 1663 he became holding that revealed religion was necessary for preacher at Strassburg, and lectured on philology salvation. Though never a Pietist, and indeed and history. In 1666 he removed to Frankfort as not of the Pietist temperament, Thomasius is chief Lutheran pastor. Here in 1670, developing interesting as an example of the broader tendenan idea which he had previously tried at Strass- cies of his age. He maintained cordial relations burg, Spener instituted his famous Collegia with Spener, though in later life he parted from Pietatis, first in his own house, and subsequently Francke. It is obvious, however, that he had in the church. His aim was to promote fellow-much in common with Pietism's spirit of toleration ship and Bible study; his means were catechizing, and its undoctrinal bent, and his work at Halle lecturing, and discussion. The name, and, accord- binds his name indissolubly with the Pietistic ing to Ritschl, the idea of such gatherings origin- movement. ated in Holland, where the Collegiants met 'in collegia' for worship; but this has scarcely been proved. The attempt, inspired by good motives, was imitated, however, and in less capable hands, often indeed in the absence of all leadership, the Collegia gained a name for promoting heresies, fanaticism, and even graver abuses. Spener finally suppressed the meetings. Some were continued despite this, and mostly became separatist communities which seriously injured the good name of Pietism. In 1675 Spener's Pia Desideria appeared in Frankfort. In it he advocated (1) earnest Bible study conducted in 'ecclesiolæ in ecclesia'; (2) a lay share in Church government, as the proper consequence of the Christian doctrine of the priesthood of believers; (3) that knowledge of Christianity is practical, not theoretical, and shown in charity, forgiveness, and devotion; (4) that, rather Meanwhile Spener's influence was creating jealousy. The theological faculties of Wittenberg and Leipzig attacked him bitterly, the former censuring in 1695 no fewer than 264 errors laid to his charge. This thunderbolt fell harmlessly, however, and Spener reiterated his position in his Theologische Bedenken (Halle, 1700-02). His influence maintained itself, and the Pietistic movement continued to flourish. In 1705 Spener died in Berlin. Spener's was a quiet, well-balanced mind. Himself a profound Bible student and a charitable practical man of devotion, he united Luther's stress upon Scripture with the insistence which the Reformed Church laid upon conduct. Strictly speaking, he was neither mystic nor quietist. He was not a separatist, nor did he desire that Pietism should become a separatist movement. Ritschl indeed declares that he was not truly a Pietist, because he did not share in the more pronounced developments of Pietism, such as insistence upon a conscious crisis as necessary in the process of salvation, and a complete breach with the world. If this is an extreme statement, it is none the less true that, except for his insistence on the need for regeneration before a man should teach theology, | and a belief that the restoration of the Jews and the fall of the papacy would precede the final victory of Christianity, there was little to distinguish Spener's views from the orthodox Lutheran creed of his day. (b) August Hermann Francke, the second great leader of Pietism, was born at Lübeck in 1663. Losing his father at an early age, Francke owed his religious training to a godly mother. He studied at Erfurt and Kiel, where he first met Pietistic influences in the person of Christian Kortholt. He proceeded to Leipzig, where he became an accomplished Hebrew and Greek scholar, graduating in 1685. Here, with Paul Anton and Johann Caspar Schade, he founded the Collegium Philobiblicum to enable graduates to study the Scriptures together, both philologically and practically-a venture of which Spener expressed approval. Francke subsequently visited Spener, and, ultimately returning to Leipzig, lectured to crowded audiences. Opposition, however, soon arose, and Francke's Bible College was suppressed and his lectures forbidden. He thereupon withdrew to a pastorate at Erfurt, but a similar outburst of opposition caused the civil authorities to expel him at forty-eight hours' notice on the charge of forming a new sect. Three months later, at the end of 1691, Spener secured for him the unsalaried chair of Greek and Oriental Languages at Halle (where his colleagues were Anton, Joachim Lange, and Joachim Justus Breithaupt) and a pastorate at Glaucha. Here Francke remained for thirty-six years until his death in 1727, exchanging, in 1698, his former position for the chair of Theology. Francke was a man of real gifts, eloquent, learned, saintly, and industrious (for his remarkable philanthropic work see below). It is said that, as a token of the respect which his character evoked, the whole town followed his body to the graveside. As a writer Francke was less able than Spener, but, besides controversial pamphlets, he left several works for students and some books of devotion. With the death of Francke the activities of Pietism waned. Its main power was wielded in N. and Middle Germany, but it exercised some influence throughout Europe, and especially in Switzerland. Frederick I. supported the movement, decreeing in 1729 that all who desired appointments in Prussia must study two years at Halle. Frederick II. was unsympathetic, however, and Valentin Ernst Löscher of Dresden headed an opposing movement. While Pietism withstood this in the main successfully, by the middle of the 18th cent. its force was largely spent, although the violence of the opposition weakened contemporaneously with the decline of Pietism. During the period of rationalism which followed Pietism was quiescent, but its spirit, at least, subsequently revived, and, in better fellowship with orthodoxy, is not yet dead in German evangelical Church life. A more moderate form of Pietism, centring in Würtemberg, flourished longer. Its leader was the famous Johann Albrecht Bengel (1687-1752), together with Friedrich Christoph Oetinger (170282) and others. Schaff compares the Würtemberg Pietists in their relation to Lutheranism with the early Methodists and Anglicanism. They aspired to be a movement within the Church, holding prayer-meetings, conducted by lay leaders (Stundenhalter), but attending church service and the sacraments. Unlike the Methodists, however, they did not entirely break away, the main body tending to become more churchly without being strict Lutherans. Some communities, like those of Kornthal and Wilhelmsdorf, seceded, following the tendency of so many Pietistic centres to become separatist. The reaction against rationalism under Baroness von Krüdener was inspired by Pietistic influences, as was the party led by Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg which flourished at the close of the Napoleonic wars. It was mainly distinguished by its opposition to the scientific study of theology. But these were after-effects. The direct influence of Pietism ceased by the middle of the 18th century. · 4. General principles of Pietism; its strength and weakness.-Spener's basis was experience. Without attacking doctrine, he relegated it to a minor place, emphasizing the will rather than knowledge, and insisting that justification by faith must be by a faith supported by works, such as repentance, conversion, and a changed life. A certain Puritan strain was manifested in the Pietist's condemnation of theatres, dancing, and such pursuits (adiaphora), and in the insistence that the regenerate alone were fitted to teach theology-a point which, somewhat strangely, gave great offence. Some Pietists indulged in millenarian speculation; many dabbled in mysticism; but, in the main, Pietism is justly to be called a movement of revaluation, which tried to attach to regeneration and sanctification as accomplished facts a higher value than to justification by faith as an approved theory. Pietism has been described as the last fruit of the heart-religion originated in the Franciscan movement; and also as the last great surge of the waves of the Reformation, and the final form of its Protestantism. Neither description is strictly accurate. religion' did not start with the Franciscans or end with Pietism; nor are the waves of the Reformation spent. Pietism was the reaction of the spirit against the letter. It sprang up in protest against the formalism of its day. But it represents a permanent spirit, for, just as tyranny provokes rebellion, and licentiousness creates a Puritan reaction, so will formalism always call up some form of Pietism. Heart The opposition to Pietism, as the lives of Spener and Francke reveal, was violent. It took the form of controversial literature, such as Imago Pietismi (1691), floods of pamphlets, heresy charges, and processes in the civil courts. Its first ground was doctrinal. The contemporary opponents of Pietism seized upon its antidoctrinal, or at least undoctrinal, character, alleging that it impoverished the doctrine of justification by faith by laying stress upon the subjective rather than the objective aspect of faith. They declared that Pietism was indifferent to the importance of correct knowledge in religion, and thus uprooted all sound theology. The Pietist stress upon the will offended the orthodox, who regarded the work of the Holy Spirit in conversion to be primarily in the illumination of the understanding, whereas the Pietists regarded it as consisting rather in the stimulation of the will. The later critics, however, chiefly bring charges of another character, mainly of fanaticism, though others see in the movement a retrograde tendency to Catholicism. It is suggested that the subsequent deterioration of Pietism was involved in its own principles. Its insistence upon new birth, separation from the world, and acute repentance is alleged to have led to exaggeration and frequent fanaticism. It is said to have indulged in wild prophecies, mysteries, bloody sweats, the formation of independent communities, some fanatical like the millenarians, others criminal. A long list of unsavoury scandals can be collected, and men, like Gottfried Arnold (1666-1714), who began as Pietists and ended as fanatical mystics are quoted as examples. It is said that registers were kept for souls, and idle people supported themselves by uttering the shibboleth of Pietism, whilst others committed suicide in religious mania. Such criticism, however, defeats its own ends. It represents the Pietism of Spener and Francke as little as gluttony and drunkenness represent the philosophy of Epicurus. Pietism must be judged in the form in which it was presented by the actual leaders of the movement, not in the excesses to which it degenerated apart from their control. In this statement, however, the main weakness of Pietism is revealed. It was the lack of central control. Unlike Wesley, Spener allowed the movement that he initiated to develop unorganized and largely undisciplined. He let liberty become licence, and it led to degeneration. Spener judged that organization had killed spirituality in the Lutheran Church, but among the Pietists the lack of organization led to the same result. There were other causes. Pietism proclaimed a gospel of individual rather than universal salvation. It tended to leave the Church and the world as evil and to seek purity in isolation. There was also opposition, and subsequently the undermining influence of the rationalistic movement. But the chief cause of the decay of Pietism was none the less the false individualism which left every Pietist community free to direct its own destinies in its own way. The decay of Pietism came when it had worn down opposition; and the influence of rationalism, though hostile, is least potent of all against spiritual movements. One can but conclude that the prime cause of the ultimate failure of Pietism to maintain itself lay in the fatal error of believing that spirituality needs no organization. part gratuitously. The system of education was both religious and technical. It embraced natural science, physical exercises, various trades, and the German tongue. One by one were established a printing press, hospital, library, farm, brewery, and laboratory. A teachers' training college was also added and a Bible Society under Karl Hildebrand von Canstein. The best side of Pietism is illustrated in the Halle orphanage a work which gained for it the support of those to whom its purely religious propaganda did not appeal. Pietism was also a pioneer in foreign missionary activities. Frederick IV. of Denmark, acting under the influence of Julius Lütkens, the court preacher, who was a friend of Spener and Francke, sent men to Halle for training, and asked Francke to find missionaries to Danish E. Indian possessions. In 1704 a mission was thus established at Tranquebar, and the Danish-Halle mission received the congratulations of George I. of England. The Moravian missionary movement also owes much of its strength to the Pietist strain in its ancestry. (e) Other movements.-The Moravians (q.v.) may be regarded as indirectly an offshoot of Pietism. Zinzendorf was Spener's godson and a pupil in the Halle schools. From Pietism he learned not only the missionary fervour which characterized the Moravian community, but the emphasis on vital religion also. Through the Moravians the Pietist influence came down to Schleiermacher (q.v.), and is found in the insistence which his philosophy lays upon feeling. The Lutheran stress upon knowledge, changed by Spener to emphasis upon will, becomes in Schleiermacher a doctrine of feeling, and in this sense also, despite Ritschl's antiPietistic strictures, the Ritschlian theology has its Pietistic strain. Indirectly linked with Pietism by means of Moravianism is the Methodist revival under John Wesley (see art. METHODISM). in 1752. 5. The results of Pietism.—(a) In the Church.— By a strange contradiction, the Aufklärung, Though the critics of Pietism allege that the which represented the antithesis of Pietism's reecclesiolo in ecclesia weakened Church organiza-ligious views, was in some part prepared by the tion and led to separatism, there is little doubt Pietistic movement. In the first place, the indithat Pietism tended in the main to restore vitality vidualism of Pietism, which attracted the robust to the Church. It showed afresh the importance common sense of Thomasius, prepared for the of religious experience; it revealed the religious individualism of the Enlightenment' (q.v.), and, value of feeling and of practical Bible study; it in addition, the reduction of emphasis upon docvindicated lay rights. It led to some improvement trine provided an atmosphere of greater freedom. in the conduct of worship and a better liturgy. It It is noteworthy that Johann Salomo Semler, who gave a fresh impetus to hymnology and religious was one of the forerunners of theological rationalpoetry. Paul Gerhardt's hymns proved an inspira- ism, came from Halle, where he was professor tion to the Pietists, and stimulated their own production. Spener and Francke both wrote hymns, though Spener's are poor and Francke's few. Better known are those of J. A. Freyling hausen; whilst among the hymn-writers influenced more or less by Pietism may be counted W. C. Dessler, B. Schmolck, J. J. Schütz, and G. Tersteegen. Although the Pietistic movement died out without effecting the thorough renewal of the life of the Church which it aimed at securing, its indirect influence tended to restore a truer conception of religion and a more intelligent form of worship, and the legacy which it left became the joint property of many subsequent forms of evangelical revival. (b) Philanthropy.-Perhaps the most enduring result of Pietism was the fresh impetus which it gave to philanthropic work. Francke established the famous Halle schools in 1795, and the foundation still exists. The work began modestly with ragged school in his own house. Two years later a special building was taken, which had grown at the time of Francke's death to a large institution, supporting nearly 150 orphans, and educating between 2000 and 3000 poor children, for the most a Through these channels the stream of Pietism ran down to the sea and lost itself. If now the watercourse is dry, at least it may be said that the flow was not in vain. Outwardly the record of Pietism is that of a movement which spent itself, but those who take a wider view will see that it was not lost as an influence when it ceased to have an independent course as a movement. The spirit of Pietism survived its body, and still lives in every form of intensive and devotional religious life. LITERATURE.—A. Tholuck, Das kirchliche Leben des 17ten Jahrhunderts, Berlin, 1862, Gesch. des Rationalismus, pt. i., do. 1865; H. Schmid, Gesch. des Pietismus, Nördlingen, 1863; Sachsse, Ursprung und Wesen des Pietismus, Wiesbaden, A. Ritschl, Gesch. des Pietismus, 3 vols., Bonn, 1880-86; E. 1884; W. Hübener, Der Pietismus geschichtlich und dogmat isch beleuchtet, Zwickau, 1901; P. Grünberg, Philipp Jakob Spener, Göttingen, 1893; J. Jungst, Pietisten, Tübingen, 1906; J. M. Carré, Le Pietisme de Halle (reprint from La Revue de Dorner, Hist. of Protestant Theology, Eng. tr., 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1871; W. Gass, Gesch, der protestantischen Dogmatik, before Kant, London, 1911; H. von Schubert, Outlines of Church History, Eng. tr., do. 1907: PRE3 and RGG, 8.0. Synthèse historique, lxxxi. [1913]), Abbeville, 1913; I. A. 4 vols., Berlin, 1854-67; A. C. McGiffert, Protestant Thought 'Pietismus.' E. S. WATERHOUSE. PILGRIMAGE. Arabian and Muhammadan (T. W. JUYNBOLL), p. 10. Babylonian (T. G. PINCHES), p. 12. PILGRIMAGE (Arabian and Muhammadan). | -1. Pilgrimages in early Arabia.-A religious feast like that annually celebrated by the heathen Arabs in the neighbourhood of Meccah was called hajj. This word (like Heb. n; see, e.g., Ex 109 124, Dt 1610) designated a periodical feast at any sacred place, to which the worshippers on that occasion made a pilgrimage. Probably there were various holy places in Arabia, where such a hajj took place. Epiphanius, e.g., mentions the word 'Ayyaalpacio (ie. the hajj to the holy temple') as being the Arabic name of a month in N. Arabia. We may suppose that 'the' holy temple to which this pilgrimage was made was a local sanctuary in that country, and not the distant Ka'bah at Meccah (cf. J. Wellhausen, Reste arab. Heidentums, p. 85). Only the great hajj, celebrated annually by various Arabic tribes at the holy mountains of 'Arafah and at adjacent places, in the sacred month of Dhu'l-Hijjah, has survived the ancient paganism, since Muhammad incorporated these ceremonies in a somewhat modified form into his own religion. The feast took place at the end of the year (see Wellhausen, p. 94 ff.) and had originally, we may suppose, a magical character. Its purpose in early times must have been to get a happy new year with plenty of rain and sunshine, prosperity, and abundance of cattle and corn. Great fires were lit at 'Arafah and Muzdalifah, probably to induce the sun to shine in the new year. Water was poured on the ground as a charm against drought (hence, probably, the 8th of Dhu'l-Hijjah was called 'the day of tarwiyah,' i.e. the day of moistening [the ground]'). Perhaps the throwing of stones at certain places in Mina, a relic of the primitive heathenism, was originally a symbol of throwing away the sins of the past year, and in this way a sort of charm against punishment and misfortune. Other theories, however, are defended by V. Chauvin (Le Jet des pierres au pèlerinage de la Mecque,' Ann. de l'Acad. royale d'archéol. de Belgique, v. iv. [1902] 272-300; cf. M. T. Houtsma, Het skopelisme en het steenwerpen te Mina,' Verslagen en Mededeelingen der Kon. Acad. van Wetenschappen, IV. vi. [1894] 194–217) and many others. The excessive hurry and noise which characterized the run from 'Arafah to Muzdalifah and from Muzdalifah to Mina seem_originally to have had some magical meaning. The three days at Mina (11th13th of Dhu'l-Hijjah) were days of eating, drinking, and sensual enjoyments, according to Muslim tradition; fasting during that time was even forbidden-evidently as a symbol of the abundance that was hoped for in the following year. Every pilgrim entered upon a special state of sacredness (ihrām) during the hajj. In this state certain things, allowable at other times, were forbidden. The muḥrim (i.e. he who was in the state of iḥrām) was not allowed, e.g., to cut his hair or nails or to shave his head. His whole body had to be left uncovered, though he might wear two pieces of white cloth (the so-called ridā and izār). We can hardly doubt that the real purpose of the various obligations of abstinence imposed on the muhrim (cf. the Hebrew Nazirite) was originally to bring the pilgrim into a state of magical power Christian (L. D. AGATE), p. 18. and to strengthen the magical influence of the hajj ritual. It must be observed, however, that in the time of Muhammad the original meaning of the old ceremonies was long forgotten. Indeed, the feast had no longer much religious, but rather a commercial, importance for the contemporaries of the Prophet, since during the hajj Meccah and the neighbouring market-places were visited by the Arabic tribes, even from distant countries. Every one could travel and trade then without fear, on account of the general truce between the tribes during the sacred months. Pilgrimages were also made in early Arabia to the Ka'bah, the old heathen temple at Meccah. The most sacred spot of this sanctuary was the eastern corner in which the venerated Black Stone was fixed, opposite the holy well of Zemzem. It was especially in the sacred month of Rajab (the 7th month of the year) that the Ka'bah was visited by pilgrims, who made circuits round the building and sacrificed first-born camels and sheep. Meccah was surrounded by a haram (sacred territory), the boundary of which was marked by stones. He who entered this sacred territory assumed the state of iḥrām, and would then pay a religious visit to the Ka'bah. The worshipping of the Meccan sanctuary was called 'umrah (i.e. cultus, cultivation of the sacred building) and, as it seems, was not connected with the annual hajj of 'Arafah. 2. Incorporation of hajj and 'umrah into Islām by Muhammad.-Muhammad had seen the hajj since his youth. When he began to preach, he had no reason for enjoining the old Arabic rites as a religious duty on his followers. For in the revealed books of the Jews and Christians no divine prescripts were given as to the hajj feast. After the hijrah, however, as Muhammad had persuaded himself that the Jews and Christians had changed the true sense of their sacred books, he concluded that the Ka'bah and the ritual connected with this house of God' had belonged originally to the true religion, and were founded according to the will of Allah by Ibrahim (Abraham), the great prophet of the Jews and Christians as well as of the Arabs. As a consequence of this theory, the pilgrimage to Meccah now became a religious duty for the Muslims at Medinah, in the second year after the hijrah. Several verses of the Qur'an, all relating to the Ka'bah and the ceremonies which must be performed there, were now revealed (see, e.g., ii. Î85– 199, iii. 89 ff., xxii. 25 ff.). But the unbelieving inhabitants of Meccah refused to admit the Muslims into the sacred city, and it was not till A.H. 6 that Muhammad tried to go with his followers to Meccah. The first attempt failed. As soon as the Meccans heard that the Muslims were approaching, they prepared themselves for stern resistance. The two parties met at Hudaibiyah, on the frontier of the sacred terri. tory. Negotiations were opened there, and it was settled that the Muslims should return to Medinah, but should be allowed to celebrate their feast in Meccah the next year. According to this treaty, the Prophet came in A.H. 7 with many of his followers to Meccah, and made the socalled 'umrat al-qadhā (i.e. 'the 'umrah whereby was performed at last what was neglected till this time,' or perhaps the 'umrah of the treaty'). Since Meccah was conquered by Muhammad in A.H. 8, many Muslims joined in the hajj, at first along with the unbelieving Arabs and without the Prophet himself. But, in A.H. 8, Qur'ān ix. 1 ff. and 28 were revealed. In these verses Allah declared that all treaties between the Muslims and unbelievers must be revoked, and that nobody who was not a true Muslim might approach Meccah or the hajj. Ali ibn Abi Talib (afterwards the fourth khalifah) was sent to Meccah by the Prophet to promulgate this revelation among the pilgrims assembled at the hajj of that year. Thus, in A.H. 10, all unbelievers were excluded from the feast, and now the Prophet came from Medinah to Meccah in order to partake himself in the hajj and to reform the old heathen ceremonies into a good Muslim service. All later Muslims have conformed to the example set by the Prophet at this pilgrimage-the so-called hajjat al-wada' (.e. the farewell hajj,' because it took place in the year before his death). 3. Muslim pilgrimages (hajj, umrah, and ziyārah).—The various ceremonies of the Meccan pilgrimage have often been described, not only by Muslim authors, but also by Europeans who have witnessed them. Moreover, the Muslim lawbooks contain full details about all that a pilgrim has to do during the days of the hajj. The pilgrimage to Meccah is called in Muslim law one of the five pillars' of Islam. It is a religious duty for every Muslim who is able to make the journey to Meccah' (Qur'ān, iii. 91)-for women as well as for men. In a few cases believers are exempted from this duty-e.g., if they have not sufficient means to pay their expenses or to provide for the support of their households till their return, or if the journey to Meccah is peculiarly dangerous on account of war or epidemic; also a woman ought not to go unless accompanied by her husband or a near relative. At the present day most of the pilgrims arrive in the holy city from Jiddah, where they are landed by the steamers of various countries. Those who travel overland come with one of the caravans to Meccah. The two best known caravans in modern times are the Syrian, which comes from Damascus, and the Egyptian, which starts from Cairo. Each has a so-called maḥmal, i.e. a camel with a richly-ornamented saddle such as distinguished Arabic women used to ride upon. The mahmal was a sort of banner in Arabia. In ancient times several maḥmals often appeared at the hajj, every independent sultan or emir sending his own caravan to the hajj with a maḥmal as a visible mark of his high dignity (see C. Snouck Hurgronje, Mekka, i. 29, 83 ff., 105). This custom was held in honour by the Turkish sulṭāns, who even continued to send the Egyptian as well as the Syrian caravan with a mahmal, though they had become khalifahs of the whole Muslim territory. (2) The pilgrim then proceeds to the fawaƒ (the circuit of the Ka'bah). He begins at the Black Stone in the eastern corner of passing the eastern corner, he must kiss the Black Stone. If the the Ka'bah, and walks round the temple seven times. When crowd is so great that he cannot get near enough to do this, he must touch it with his hand or with a stick or must look towards it. (3) The next ceremony is the sa'y (the running or circuiting) between Şafa and Marwah, two sacred places in the immediate neighbourhood of the great mosque of Meccah. Safa and Marwah must once have been hills, which were held in reverence by the Meccans. In later times the soil of Meccah has risen considerably and at the present day Şafa and Marwah hardly show above the surrounding houses. A revelation (Qur'an, ii. 153) has confirmed the sacred character of these places. Starting from Safa, the pilgrim runs seven times his shoulders. between the two sanctuaries, in a prescribed manner, moving (4) At last, arriving at Marwah, he goes to the barber there, who shaves his head and thereby ends the state of ihram. Originally the ritual shaving of the head must have been a sign that a sacrifice or other religious act was performed. The 'umrah can be performed at any time and as often as the individual Muslim likes. The inhabitants of Meccah usually do it in the month of Ramaḍān because this is the special month for religious acts. Before the beginning of the hajj, on the 7th of Dhu'l-Hijjah, a khatib (preacher'), usually the qādi of Meccah, gives an address in the great mosque at Meccah to remind the pilgrims of the ritual of the following days. Next day (8th of Dhu'l-Hijjah) most of the pilgrims enter upon the state of iḥram for the hajj, and depart from Meccah to 'Arafah, which can be reached in about four hours by camel. According to the law-books, it is best to pass the night in Muna (formerly Mina), about half-way between Meccah and 'Arafah, but usually the great majority of the pilgrims go directly to the plain of 'Arafah. There the wukuf takes place on the 9th of Dhu'l-Hijjah. The Muslim wukuf is simply the staying or standing in the plain of Arafah for the prescribed time (just after mid-day till a little after sunset). This ceremony is also a pillar of the Muslim hajj. There are no special rules for the wukuf in the law-books. The pilgrims are only waiting there. Wellhausen thinks that this ceremony was of more importance in pagan times, and was perhaps a general sacrifice for all the pilgrims. After sunset the ifädhah begins (i.e. the running from 'Arafah to Muzdalifah, half-way between 'Arafah and Muna)-according to the old heathen usage, with great hurry and noise. The pilgrims pass the second night in Muzdalifah, and many of them are present at the second wuķūf there in the early morning. Before sunrise the journey to Muna must be continued. In Mună the great offering-feast is celebrated on the 10th of Dhu'l-Hijjah. This day is therefore called the yaum an-nuhr ('the day of slaughtering'). The sacrifice is preceded by the ceremony of throwing seven pebbles to the jamrah al'Akabah (i.e. the heap of pebbles close to the mountain-road) at Muna; to-day this place is marked by a sort of buttress of rude masonry about 8 ft. high by 24 ft. broad. The Muslims say that this ceremony has been performed since the time of Ibrahim because the devil (Shaitan) tried to seduce him on this spot. Before throwing each of the seven pebbles, the pilgrim must say: 'In the name of God, Allah is almighty!' In the holy city pilgrims usually begin by performing the ceremonies of the 'umrah, the so-called little pilgrimage' to the Meccan sanctuaries. Almost every pilgrim requires the assistance and information of a Meccan guide (dalil, mutawwif, The sacrifice at Mună, strictly speaking, conor shaikh) to instruct him in the ritual and teach cludes the hajj, and the pilgrim may then shave him to recite the prescribed sacred formulæ. The his head. But, before returning to the ordinary Muslim umrah consists mainly of the four follow-profane state, he should go to Meccah and make ing ceremonies : (1) Before entering the haram of Meccah, the pilgrims must assume the state of ihram, abstaining thereafter from worldly affairs and devoting themselves entirely to religious duties. The inhabitants of Meccah, when performing an 'umrah, must go out of the haram. They assume the state of iḥram on the frontier (usually at Tan'im, which is therefore often called 'Umrah). the tawaf round the Ka'bah, followed by a sa'y between Safa and Marwah, if he has not already performed this ceremony on his first arrival at Meccah. It is, however, not necessary to perform the tawaf and say on the 10th of Dhu'l-Hijjah, though it is a meritorious act. It may be done also on one of the following days. |