A.D. 1371.]

EARLY COMMERCE OF SCOTLAND.

53

object of importance with the wealthy merchants of states then much farther advanced in civilization; for during his reign a number of Lombard merchants arrived in the country, proposing to establish trading settlements in the towns upon the coast. One of the stations fixed on by them was the height above Queensferry. The narrow policy of Alexander, however, seems to have defeated their object, and rendered their scheme abortive. The great increase of traffic which was taking place seems to have alarmed this monarch, and led him to publish an edict prohibiting the exportation of any merchandise from his kingdom. The effect produced by this edict shows distinctly the demand which existed in foreign markets for Scottish exports. "A year had not expired," says Fordun, “when the vessels of different nations laden with merchandise came into our ports, anxious to exchange their commodities for the productions of our country." On perceiving this, Alexander so far altered his narrow policy as to allow the burgesses, but them alone, to engage in traffic with the foreigners.

The exports of Scotland at this time were wool, skins, hides, and woolfells; fish salted and cured in great quantities; horses, sheep, and cattle; and at times pearls, falcons, and greyhounds. The Scottish pearls were then much sought after, and those in the possession of Alexander I. were celebrated in foreign countries for their great size and beauty. After the introduction of the oriental pearl, however, the Scottish fell into disrepute; and by a statute of the Parisian goldsmiths, in the year 1355, it was enacted that no worker in gold and silver should set any Scottish pearl with oriental ones, except in large ornaments and jewels for churches. The Scottish greyhounds also appear to have been famous abroad. In 1396 the duke de Berri, as is shown by their passports preserved in Rhymer's Fœdera, sent his valet and three attendants into Scotland for the purpose of purchasing a number of these dogs; and under the reign of David II., Godfrey de Roos, an English baron, procured from Edward III. a safe conduct for his shield-bearer and two attendants who were travelling from Scotland with dogs and falcons.

The imports of Scotland were chiefly fine linen and silks; broad cloth, and a rich article manufactured in Ireland from wool, called sayes; rich carpets and tapestry; wine, oil of olives, and at times corn and barley; spices and confections of all kinds; drugs and electuaries; arms, armour, and cutlery. In 1333 Scottish merchants were in the habit of importing from Suffolk vases of gold and silver, and silver in bars and money. Gold and silver were no doubt obtained in different parts of Scotland; and that Fife had then produced gold is evident from a charter of David I. to the monks of Dunfermline, in which he grants them the tenth of all the gold which should accrue to him in that county or Forthrif. The Scottish mines, however, do not appear to have been very productive; and the importation of gold and silver was rendered necessary to supply the demands of the nobles and the clergy. In these early times the merchants of St Omers, and the great Florentine houses of Pullici and Lambini had correspondents in Scotland; while on the other hand, the Scottish merchants sent factors and supercargoes into foreign countries to manage their business. Alexander III. was

regularly supplied with wine and corn by a merchant of Gascony, and at the period of his death was owing that person a large sum of money.

The clergy of these times engaged largely in this commerce; and partook to no small extent in its profits. The monks of the isle of May had their ships, which were specially exempted by David I. from all customs. The bishop of St Andrews had also his ships; and indeed almost all the clergy enlarged their revenues by commerce. They were also the bankers of the period, and accommodated persons requiring it with loans of money. A considerable portion of the lands which they came in time to possess, was originally acquired for money which had been advanced to the proprietors in their necessities. They also engaged extensively in the fisheries, as appears from the numerous grants of fishings to be met with in the cartularies of the different monasteries. A domestic manufacture of a coarse woollen fabric existed during this period, which was regulated by an assize of David I. Flax and leather were also manufactured. Artisans are early to be found in the towns and villages. In the latter we find smiths, tanners, and shoemakers; and in the former dyers, goldsmiths, and armourers. In the reign of David I. salt works seem to have been an object of great attention; and in the reign of Alexander II. windmills were universally introduced.

It is worthy of remark, as showing the different races of people which still existed in Scotland, that the names of those artisans which have been preserved are invariably Saxon or Flemish; while the names of the people who inhabited the rural districts are almost as invariably Celtic. The situation of the people in the country seems to have been very different from that of those who dwelt in towns. While the latter were freemen protected by charters, and granted many privileges, the tillers of the land seem to have been bondmen and villeyns, rather than freemen and farmers. Free tenants unquestionably existed, but want of capital must have rendered them entirely dependent on the proprietor of the soil for whom they laboured the land, receiving a portion of the produce as a reward for their labour. But the bondmen were numerous; and several curious evidences of this fact remain. In 1340 an assize was held before David Wemyss, sheriff of Fife, in the churchyard of Kartyl, to determine whether Alan the son of Constantin and his two sons were the property of the earl of Fife, or of the abbot of Dunfermline. They had transferred themselves from the lands of the abbot to another habitation, and when required to return, refused on the ground that they were the bondmen of the earl. It was decided by the jury that they were the property of the abbot. William the Lion, in 1178, made a donation to the monks of Dunfermline of Gillandrean M'Suthen and his children to be theirs for ever. David I. gave to the same monks three servi, Ragewin, Gillepatrick et Ulchil for ever. This unfortunate class of people were regularly transferred with the lands, but we see from the instances given that they were also sold or gifted away where no transfer of lands took place.

During the long period which intervened, from the commencement of the war of independence and the reign of David II., when Edward III. began for his own ends to give encouragement to the merchants of Scotland, the infant commerce of the country

A. D. 1371.]

had

many vicissitudes. At times it seemed to be almost entirely annihilated; but the enterprising spirit of the people speedily revived it on every fitting opportunity. Whatever insidious views Edward might have on the independence of Scotland, the change produced on the commerce of the country by the change made in his policy towards it, was soon apparent, and wealth began again to flow into Scotland.

Agriculture was at this time an object of universal pursuit. The kings of Scotland possessed royal manors in almost every county, which were cultivated by their own free tenants and bondsmen, and to which they annually repaired, for the purpose of collecting their rents, and consuming a portion of the produce. The same practice was adopted, though of course in a lesser degree, by the great barons, and others who had lands in different parts of the country. The clergy, however, as they were in commerce, were the great improvers of agriculture; and from them those leases first proceeded which had the most beneficial effect in clearing the country of wood, and bringing the land under tillage. Their tenants, from the pacific nature of the landlords, were allowed to devote their time more exclusively to agricultural improvement, than those of either king or baron, and their lands accordingly exhibited a much superior state of cultivation. The system of agriculture The system of agriculture adopted was no doubt sufficiently rude and simple; but oats, wheat, barley, pease, and beans, were all raised in tolerable abundance. That wheat was thus early cultivated in Fife, is proved by a charter of David I. to the monastery of Dunfermline, granting to it the tenth of the wheat and oats from his manors of Kinghorn, Kellie, and Crail. Malt kilns and brew houses were to be found in every village; and the kings of Scotland seem to have had breweries at various places. David granted to the same monastery the tenth of his breweries in Fife. Cows, sheep, and large herds of swine, which fed on the beach mast, strolled the fields, the mountain grazings, and the forests.

The breeding of horses was also carried to a considerable extent. In the forests, large herds of brood mares, surrounded by their grown up progeny, and with their young foals at their feet, ran wild, and produced a hardy stock of little horses, upon which the light armed Scottish cavalry were mounted. Some idea may be formed of the extent of the stud possessed by the higher barons, and rich ecclesiastical houses, by an inventory preserved in the cartulary of Newbottle. It states that the monks of Melrose possessed in old times 325 forest mares and horses, 54 domestic mares, 104 domestic horses, 207 stags or young horses, 39 three year old colts, and 172 year old colts. The forests of Fife, too, teemed with herds of these wild horses; and we find David I. making grants to the monks of Dunfermline of the tenth of that portion of his breeding mares in Fife and Forthrif. These horses, both the wild and those which were domesticated, were a small but hardy breed, excellently adapted for many purposes, both in war and peace; but they were too light for carrying the knight, clad from top to toe in complete armour. While, therefore, the horses of the country were exported, and proved an article of profitable traffic, the Scottish barons imported a larger breed from abroad, to be employed as the great war horse. In ploughing and

harrowing, leading hay, carting peats, and taking in corn during harvest, the wain drawn by oxen appears to have been chiefly used, while the conveyance of the agricultural produce to any great distance was performed by horses.

The greatest attention was bestowed on the rearing of sheep and cattle. Sheep appear at first only to have existed on the lowland districts, but latterly they abounded both on the northern and southern districts, and constituted a principal branch of the wealth of the country. In the cultivated places, ten cows were kept for every plough on the farm; but they were much more numerous in the wilder parts of the country. Goats were also numerous among the mountains. The dairy was, during these times, a very important object of attention, and great quantities of cheese seem to have been made on the royal manors. This appears from the royal grants to the different monasteries; and there is every reason to suppose that the same attention was paid to this object on the lands of the barons, as well as of the ecclesiastical community. David I. granted to the monks of Scone the tenth of his can of cheese from his manors of Gourie, Scone, Cupar, and Forgrund, and among the ancient dues which were payable to the church of Aucterderan in Fife, there were "triginta caseos quorum quilibet facit chudreme." Poultry were also bred; and the monks appear to have had their full share of this article of food, in consequence of the grants both of the kings and nobles. The monks of Scone, for instance, received, under Malcolm IV., ten hens from every plough land which belonged to them at the feast of All Saints; and the monks of Kelso received at Christmas a hen, for which they paid one half-penny, from every house on every one of their hamlets. These hamlets often contained sixty or seventy houses.

The value of lands in these early times is an object of curious, but rather obscure inquiry. Land had not then to any extent become the object of sale, although instances are to be found in the chartularies of the different monasteries. In the reign of Alexander II. the monks of Melrose purchased from Richard Burnard, a meadow at Faringdun, containing eight acres, for thirty-five marks, equal to three hundred and fifty pounds of our present money. In 1225, queen Ermengarde, when she was about to found the monastery of Balmerinoch, purchased from Adam de Stawel, the lands of Balmerinoch, Ardin, and Cultrath, for a thousand marks legal sterling, equal to £10,000 of our present money. In the first mentioned of these sales, the price appears to have been at the rate of about forty-three pounds, eighteen shillings, of our present money per acre; but in the purchase by queen Ermengarde in Fife, we have no criterion to judge of the value per acre, as the extent of the lands are not mentioned. The price of land, however, seems to have varied much, for we find that Stephen de Melginsh sold to the monks of Scone, a tenement in the village of Balursin, with a toft and two acres of land, for two marks, equal to about twenty pounds of the present money. The rents paid for lands and pastures were equally various, and the rate per acre of the lands still more difficult to ascertain. From the whole of the evidence, however, contained in the different chartularies which have been preserved, it is evident that

A. D. 1371.]

VALUE OF GRAIN, CATTLE, &c.

57

money was scarce, although the state of Scotland was in a progress of gradual improvement. Gardens and orchards were also cultivated as early as the reign of David I. This monarch had seen the horticulture of England, and did not neglect it. The barons and nobles followed his example, and the clergy, who were never behind in improvements, made their gardens and orchards objects of great attention. We have distinct evidence of this in the cartularies, and of their existence in various parts of Fife. Henry de Anstruther granted a messuage with a garden in Anstruther, to the monastery of Dryburgh.

The prices of provisions and other articles of general consumpt, and the remuneration for labour is also worthy of being noticed. In 1263, a chalder of oatmeal, fourteen bolls being computed for the chalder, was exactly one pound; and in the same year the chalder of wheat cost nine pounds, three shillings. In 1264, twenty chalders of barley sold for ten pounds; but in 1288, the price had fallen so low that forty chalders sold for six pounds, thirteen shillings, and four pence. In that year wheat sold at thirteen shillings and four pence, or a mark the chalder. In 1290, barley sold for ten shillings the chalder, and a chalder of rye for four shillings; while, in 1329, the price of the best barley fluctuated from twenty to twenty-four shillings the chalder. In 1326, oatmeal sold for twenty pence the boll; and another quantity, probably of better quality, is sold in the same year at two shillings the boll. In 1360, wheat was at the rate of two shillings and three pence halfpenny per boll; five years afterwards it could not be had under three shillings and nine pence three farthings for the same quantity. About the same time, twenty-nine barrels of beer cost eleven pounds, nine shillings; and fifty-five barrels of herring, twenty-nine pounds, nineteen shillings. So far back as 1263, the price of a cow was four shillings and five pence, and that of a sheep, ten pence. Next year, forty cows were sold for five shillings a head; and thirty-eight swine at eighteen pence each; in 1288, twelve swine sold for one shilling a head. In 1368, two oxen sold for thirteen shillings and four pence; seven score hens for eleven shillings and eight pence, or one penny each; and a tonegall of cheese, measuring six stones, for three shillings. The price of the ordinary fuel, which was peats and wood, was moderate. In 1288, two hundred and five horse loads of fire-wood for the royal palace at Stirling, cost only thirty-six shillings and sixpence. Eight waggon loads of peats, including the carriage and some small expenses, cost thirteen pounds, seventeen shillings, and five pence. Salt varied greatly in price. In 1288, twelve chalders of salt were sold for six shillings the chalder; but in 1360, ten chalders cost thirteen pounds, six shillings, and eight pence. In 1263, a hundred and seventy-eight hogsheads of wine were purchased for the king's table, at four hundred and thirty-nine pounds, sixteen shillings, and eight pence; the year following, sixty-seven hogsheads, one pipe, were purchased for three hundred and seventy-three pounds, sixteen shillings, and eight pence; and in 1329, forty-two hogsheads cost a hundred and sixty-eight pounds.

These facts are ascertained by the Rolls of the king's chamberlain, a portion of which have been printed, though not yet published; and from the same curious record some

H