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ces are exceptionable in this respect. "As for such animals as are mortal or noxious, we have a right to destroy them." "I long since learned to like nothing but what you do." "He aimed at nothing less than the crown," may denote either, Nothing was less aimed at by him than the crown," or, "Nothing inferior to the crown could satisfy his ambition." "I will have mercy, and not sacrifice." The first part of this sentence denotes, "I will exercise mercy;" whereas it is in this place employed to signify, "I require others to exercise it." The translation should therefore have been accommodated to these different meanings. "They were both much more ancient among the Persians than Zoroaster or Zerdusht." The or in this sentence is equivocal. It serves either as a copulative to synonymous words, or as a disjunctive of different things. If, therefore, the student should not know, that Zoroaster and Zerdusht mean the same person, he will mistake the sense. "The rising tomb a lofty column bore:" "And thus the son the fervent sire addressed." Did the tomb bear the column, or the column the tomb? Did the son address the sire, or the sire the son?

If the sire addressed the son, the line should run thus ;
"And thus his son the fervent sire address'd."

If the son addressed the sire;

"And thus the son his fervent sire address'd." When we say; "Neither life nor death shall seperate us from the love of God;" it may mean, either from the love which we owe to God, or the love which he bears to us for "The love of God" may denote, either the relation which the affection bears to its subject, or that which it bears to its object.

An ambiguity likewise arises, from expressing either the relation of the effect to its cause, or that of the accident to its subject: as, "This event took place a little after the reformation of Luther." This sentence may import, either the change produced by Luther, or a change produced in him. The latter indeed is the meaning, according to the construction of the phrase; though it is not that which was intended by the author. He should have said, "the reformation by Luther."

6. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent words or phrases. "I have observed," says Steele," that the superiority among these coffee-bouse politicians,proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion." This sentence, considered in itself, evidently conveys no meaning. First, it is not said whose opinion, their own, or that of others: Secondly, it is not said what opinion, or of what sort, favourable or unfavourable, true or false; but in general, "an opinion of gallantry and fashion," which conVOL. I

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tains no definite expression of any meaning. With the joint assistance of the context, reflexion, and conjecture, we shall perhaps conclude that the author intended to say; "That the rank among these politicians, was determined by the opinion generally entertained of the rank, in point of gallantry and fashion, that each of them had attained.”

"This temper of mind," says an author, speaking of huWhether mility, "keeps our understanding tight about us." the author had any meaning in this expression, or what it was, is not easy to determine.

Sometimes a writer runs on in a species verbosity, amusing his reader with synonymous terms and identical propositions, well-turned periods, and high sounding words; but at the same time, using those words so indefinitely, that the reader can either affix no meaning at all to them, or may affix to them almost any meaning he pleases.

"If it is asked," says a late writer, "whence arises the harmony or beauty of language? what are the rules for obtaining it? the answer is obvious. Whatever renders a period sweet and pleasant, makes it also graceful. A good ear is the gift of nature; it may be much improved, but not acquired by art. Whoever is possessed of it, will scarcely need dry critical precepts, to enable him to judge of a true rhythmus, and melody of composition. Just numbers, accurate proportions, a musical symphony, magnificent figures, and that decorum which is the result of all these, are in unison to the human mind."

The following is a poetical example of the same nature, in which there is scarcely a glimpse of meaning, though it was composed by an eminent poet.

From harmony, from heavenly harmony,

This universal frame began:

From harmony to harmony

Thro' all the compass of the notes it ran,
The diapason closing full in man.

In general, it may be said, that in writings of this stamp we must accept of sound instead of sense; being assured, that if we meet with little that can inform the judgment, we shall at least find nothing that will offend the ear. And perhaps this is one reason that we pass over such smooth language, without suspecting that it contains little or no meaning. In order to write or speak clearly and intelligibly, two things are especially requisite: one, that we have clear and distinct ideas of our subject; and the other, that our words be approved signs of those ideas. That persons who think confusedly, should express themselves obscurely, is not to be wondered at: for embar

rassed, obscure, and feeble sentences, are generally, if not always, the result of embarrassed, obscure, and feeble thought: but that persons of judgment, who are accustomed to scrutinize their ideas, and the signification of their words, should sometimes write without any meaning, is, at first sight, matter of admiration. This, however, when further considered, appears to be an effect derived from the same cause, indistinctness of conception, and inattention to the exact import of words.-The occasions on which we are most apt to speak and write in this unintelligible manner, are the three following.

The first is, where there is an exuberance of metaphor. Writers who are fond of the metaphoric style, are generally disposed to continue it too long, and to pursue it too far. They are often misled, by a desire of flourishing on the several properties of a metaphor, which they have ushered into the discourse, without taking the trouble to examine whether there are any qualities in the subject, to which these properties can, with justice and perspicuity, be applied. The following instance of this sort of writing, is from an author of considerable eminence. "Men must acquire a very peculiar and strong babit of turning their view inward, in order to explore the interior regions and recesses of the mind, the bollow caverns of deep thought, the private seats of fancy, and the wastes and wildernesses, as well as the more fruitful and cultivated tracts of this obscure climate." A most wonderful way of telling us, that it is difficult to trace the operations of the mind. The author having determined to represent the human mind under the metaphor of a country, revolved in his thoughts the various objects which might be found in a country, without considering whether there are any things in the mind properly analogous to these. Hence the strange parade he makes with regions and recesses, hollow caverns and private seats, wastes and wildernesses, fruitful and cultivated tracts; words which, though they have a precise meaning, as applied to country, have no definite signification, as applied to mind.

The second occasion of our being apt to write unintelligibly, is that wherein the terms most frequently occurring, denote things which are of a complicated nature, and to which the mind is not sufficiently familiarised. Of these the instances. are numberless in every tongue; such as, Government, church, state, constitution, power, legislature, jurisdiction, &c.

The third and principal occasion of unintelligible writing, is, when the terms employed are very abstract, and consequently of very extensive signification. Thus the word lion is more distinctly apprehended by the mind, than the word beast, beast than animal, and animal than being.

The 7th and last rule for preserving propriety in our words

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and phrases, is, to avoid all those which are not adapted to the ideas we mean to communicate; or which are less significant than others, of those ideas. He feels any sorrow that can arrive at man;" better "happen to man." "The conscience of approving one's self a benefactor, is the best recompense for being so ;' it should have been "consciousness." "He firmly believed the divine precept, There is not a sparrow falls to the ground,' &c. It should have been "doctrine."

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A scene

"It is but opening the eye, and the scene enters." cannot be said to enter: an actor enters; but a scene appears or presents itself.

"We immediately assent to the beauty of an object, without inquiring into the causes of it :" it is proper to say, that we assent to the truth of a proposition; but it cannot so well be said, that we assent to the beauty of an object. Acknowledge would have expressed the sense with propriety.

"The sense of feeling, can, indeed, give us a notion of extension, shape, and all other ideas that enter at the eye, except colours." Extension and shape can, with no propriety, be called ideas; they are properties of matter. Neither is it accurate, to speak of any sense giving us a notion of ideas: our senses give us the ideas themselves. The meaning of the sentence would have been proper, and much clearer, if the author had expressed himself thus: "The sense of feeling, can, indeed, give us the idea of extension, figure, and all the other properties of matter, which are perceived by the eye, except colours."

"The covetous man never has a sufficiency; although be has what is enough for nature," is much inferior to, "The covetous man never has enough; although he has what is sufficient for nature."

"A traveller observes the most striking objects he sees; a general remarks all the motions of his enemy:" better thus: "A traveller remarks," &c.; "A general observes," &c.

"This measure enlarged his school, and obliged him to increase the buildings;" it should be, "increased his school," and "enlarge the buildings."

"He applied a medicine before the poison had time to work;" better thus: "He applied an antidote," &c.

"The poison of a suspicious temper frequently throws out its bad qualities, on all who are within its reach;" better, "throws out its malignant qualities."

"I will go except I should be ill;" "I saw them all unless two or three :" corrected thus: "unless I should be ill," except two or three."

A selection of words and phrases, which are peculiarly expressive of the ideas we design to communicate; or which are as particular and determinate in their signification, as is con

sistent with the nature and the scope of the discourse; possesses great beauty, and cannot fail to produce a good effect.

CHAPTER HI.

OF PRECISION.

See Vol. ii. Part 5. Exercises. Chap. 3.

PRECISION is the third requisite of perspicuity with respect to words and phrases. It signifies retrenching superfluities, and pruning the expression, so as to exhibit neither more nor less, than an exact copy of the person's idea who uses it.

The words used to express ideas may be faulty in three respects. First, they may not express the idea which the author intends, but some other which only resembles it: secondly, They may express that idea, but not fully and completely: thirdly, They may express it, together with something more than is intended. Precision stands opposed to these three faults, but chiefly to the last. Propriety implies a freedom from the two former faults. The words which are used may be proper; that is, they may express the idea intended, and they may express it fully but to be precise, signifies that they express that idea, and no more.

The use and importance of precision, may be deduced from the nature of the human mind. It never can view, clearly and distinctly, more than one object at a time. If it must look at two or three together, especially objects that have resemblance or connexion, it finds itself confused and embarrassed. It cannot clearly perceive, in what they agree, and in what they differ. Thus, were any object, suppose some animal, to be presented to my view, of whose structure I wish to form a distinct notion, I should desire all its trappings to be taken off, I should require it to be brought before me by itself, and to stand alone, that there might be nothing to divide my attention. The same is the case with words. If, when any one would inform me of his meaning, be also tells me more than what conveys it; if he joins foreign circumstances to the principal objects; if, by unnecessarily varying the expression, he shifts the point of view, and makes me see sometimes the object itself, and sometimes another thing that is connected with it; he thereby obliges me to look on several objects at once, and I lose sight of the principal. He loads the animal he is showing me, with so many trappings and collars, that I caunot distinctly view it; or be brings so many of the same species before me, somewhat resembling, and yet somewhat differing, that I see none of