hoped that this title would secure him an ample and an inde pendent authority." 3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we frequently omit the articles, which might be inserted with propriety in writing, especially in a grave style. "At worst, time might be gained by this expedient." "At the worst," would have been better in this place. "Give me here John Baptist's head." There would have been more dignity in saying, "John the Baptist's head;" or, "The head of John the Baptist." The article the has sometimes a different effect, in distinguishing a person by an epithet. "In the history of Henry the fourth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at not finding him the great man." "I own I am often surprised that he should have treated so coldly, a man so much the gentleman." This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the French, for the pronoun possessive: as, "He looks him full in the face;" that is, "in his face." In his presence they were to strike the forehead on the ground;" that is, "their foreheads." We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the same article, when the adjective, on account of any clause depending upon it, is put after the substantive. "Of all the considerable governments among the Alps, a commonwealth is a constitution the most adapted of any to the poverty of those countries." "With such a specious title as that of blood, which with the multitude is always a claim, the strongest, and the most easily comprehended." "They are not the men in the nation the most difficult to be replaced." The definite article is likewise used to distinguish between things, which are individually different, but have one generic name, and things which are, in truth, one and the same, but are characterized by several qualities. If we say, "The ecclesiastical and secular powers concurred in this measure," the expression is ambiguous, as far as language can render it such. The reader's knowledge, as Dr. Campbell observes, may prevent his mistaking it; but if such modes of expression be admitted, where the sense is clear, they may inadvertently be imitated, in cases where the meaning would be obscure, if not entirely misunderstood. The error might have been avoided, either by repeating the substantive, or by subjoining the substantive to the first adjective, and prefixing the article to both adjectives; or by placing the substantive after both adjectives, the article being prefixed in the same manner: as, "The ecclesiastical powers, and the secular powers;" or better," The "The ecclesiasti ecclesiastical powers, and the secular;" or, cal, and the secular powers." The repetition of the article shows, that the second adjective is not an additional epithet to the same subject, but belongs to a subject totally different, though expressed by the same generic name. "The lords spiritual and temporal," is a phraseology objectionable on the same principle, though now so long sanctioned by usage, that we scarcely dare question its propriety. The subjects are different, though they have but one generic name. The phrase should, therefore, have been," The spiritual and the temporal lords." On the contrary, when two or more adjectives belong, as epithets, to one and the same thing, the other arrangement is to be preferred: as, "The high and mighty states." Here both epithets belong to one subject. "The states high and mighty," would convey the same idea. The indefinite article bas, sometimes, the meaning of every or each as, "They cost five shillings a dozen;" that is, “every dozen." "A man he was to all the country dear, that is, " every year." -Goldsmith. There is a particular use of the indefinite article, which deserves attention, as ambiguity may, by this means, be, in some cases, avoided. Thus, if we say, "He is a better soldier than scholar," the article is suppressed before the second term, and the expression is equivalent to," He is more warlike than learned;" or, " He possesses the qualities, which form the soldier, in greater degree than those, which constitute the scholar." If we say, "He would make a better soldier than a scholar," the article is prefixed to the second term, and the meaning is, "He would make a better soldier than a scholar would make;" that is, "He has more of the constituent qualities of a soldier, than are to be found in any literary man.' These two phraseologies are frequently confounded, which seldom fails to produce uncertainty of meaning. In the former case, the subject, as possessing different qualities in various degrees, is compared with itself; in the latter, it is compared with something else. RULE X. ONE substantive governs another, signifying a different thing, in the possessive or genitive case: as My father's house;" "Man's happiness;" "Virtue's reward." See Vol. ii. Part 3. Exercises. Chap. 1. Rule 10. 66 WHEN the annexed substantive signifies the same thing as the first, and serves merely to explain or describe it, there is no variation of case: as, "George, king of Great Britain, elector of Hanover," &c.; "Pompey contended with Cæsar, the greatest general of his time;""" Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity." Nouns thus circumstanced are said to be in apposition to each other. The interposition of a relative and verb will sometimes break the construction: as, "Pompey contended with Cæsar, who was the greatest general of his time." Here the word general is in the nominative case, governed by note 4, under RULE XI. Both the parts of this rule are exemplified in the following sentences: "Maria rejected Valerius, the man whom she had rejected before ;" "Maria rejected Valerius, who was he that she had rejected before," Nouns are not unfrequently set in apposition to sentences, or clauses of sentences: as, "If a man bad a positive idea of infinite, either duration or space, he could add two infinites together; nay, make one infinite infinitely bigger than another; absurdities too gross to be confuted." Here the absurdities are the whole preceding propositions. "You are too humane and considerate; things which few people can be charged with." Here things are in apposition to humane and considerate. This construction is not to be recommended, when the parts of the sentence are long, or numerous. The first of the preceding examples, is, therefore, improvable. It would have been better if a fresh sentence had been introduced, thus: "These are absurdities," &c. The preposition of joined to a substantive, is frequently equivalent to the possessive case: as, "A Christian's hope," "The hope of a Christian." But it is only so, when the expression can be converted into the regular form of the possessive case. We can say, "The reward of virtue," and "Virtue's reward;" but though it is proper to say, "A crown of gold," we cannot convert the expression into the possessive case, and say, "Gold's crown." 66 Substantives govern pronouns as well as nouns, in the possessive case: as, 66 Every tree is known by its fruit;" Goodness brings its reward," "That desk is mine." The genitive its is often improperly used for 'tis or it is: as, "Its my book;" instead of, "It is my book." The pronoun his, when detached from the noun to which it relates, is to be considered, not as a possessive pronoun, but as the genitive case of the personal pronoun: as, "This composition is his." "Whose book is that?" "His." If we use the noun itself, we should say, " This composition is John's.' "Whose book is that?" "Eliza's." The position will be still more evident, when we consider that both the pronouns, in the following sentence, must have a similar construction: "Is it her or his honour that is tarnished?" "It is not hers, but his.” Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive case stands alone, the latter one by which it is governed being understood: as, "I called at the bookseller's," that is, " at the is," bookseller's shop" 1. If several nouns come together in the genitive case, the apostrophe with s is annexed to the last, and understood in the rest: as, "John and Eliza's books:" "This was my father, mother, and uncle's advice." But when any words intervene, perhaps on account of the increased pause, the sign of the possessive should be annexed to each: as, 66 They are John's as well as Eliza's books;" "[ had the physician's, the surgeon's, and the apothecary's assistance." The following distinction, on this point, appears to be worthy of attention. When any subject or subjects are considered as the common property of two or more persons, the sign of the possessive case, is affixed only to the name of the last person: as, "This is Henry, William, and Joseph's estate." But when several subjects are considered, as belonging separately to distinct individuals, the names of the individuals have the sign of the possessive case annexed to each of them as, "These are Henry's, William's, and Joseph's estates." It is, however, better to say, "It was the advice of my father, mother, and uncle ;" "I had the assistance of the physician, the surgeon, and the apothecary;" "This estate belongs in common to Henry, William, and Joseph." 2. In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, but the apostrophe retained, in the same manner as in substantives of the plural number ending in s: as, "The wrath of Peleus' son." This seems not so allowable in prose; which the following erroneous examples will demonstrate: "Moses' minister;""Phinehas' wife;" "Festus' came into Felix' room." "These answers were made to the witness' questions." But in cases which would give too much of the hissing sound, or increase the difficulty of pronunciation, the omission takes place even in prose: as, "For righteousness' sake;" "For conscience' sake." : 3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awkward between a genitive case, and the word which usually follows it as, " She began to extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding." It ought to be," the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." The word in the genitive case is frequently placed impre perly as, "This fact appears from Dr. Pearson of Bir mingham's experiments." It should be, "from the experiments of Dr. Pearson of Birmingham." : 4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name and an office, or of any expressions by which one part is descriptive or explanatory of the other, it may occasion some doubt to which of them the sign of the genitive case should be annexed or whether it should be subjoined to them both. Thus, some would say," I left the parcel at Smith's the bookseller;" others," at Smith the bookseller's ;" and perhaps others, "at Smith's the bookseller's." The first of these forms is most agreeable to the English idiom; and if the addition consists in two or more words, the case seems to be less dubious: as, "I left the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer." The point will be still clearer, if we supply the ellipsis in these sentences, and give the equivalent phrases, at large: thus; "I left the parcel at the house of Smith the bookseller;" "I left it at Smith the house of the bookseller." "I left it at the house of Smith the house of the bookseller." By this process, it is evident, that only the first mode of expression is correct and proper. But as this subject requires a little further explanation, to make it intelligible to the learners, we shall add a few observations calculated to unfold its principles. A phrase in which the words are so connected and dependent, as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, necessarily requires the genitive sign at or near the end of the phrase: as, "Whose prerogative is it? It is the king of Great Britain's;""That is the duke of Bridgewater's canal;" "The bishop of Landaff's excellent book;" "The Lord mayor of London's authority;" "The captain of the guard's house." When words in apposition follow each other in quick succession, it seems also most agreeable to our idiom, to give the sign of the genitive a similar situation; especially if the noun which governs the genitive be expressed: as, "The emperor Leopold's ;""Dionysius the tyrant's;" "For David my servant's sake;""Give me John the Baptist's head;" "Paul the apostle's advice." But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed; and when the latter part of the sentence is extended; it appears to be requisite that the sign should be applied to the first genitive, and understood to the other: as, "I reside at lord Stormont's, my old patron and benefactor;" "Whose glory did he emulate? He emulated Cæsar's, the greatest general of antiquity." In the following sentences, it would be very awkward to place the sign, either at the end of each of the clauses, or at the end of the latter one alone: "These psalms are David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the Jewish people;" "We staid a month at |