THE FIRST PERIOD, FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE YEAR 1400. "BELOVED indeed," says dear old genial Dibdin, "is the poetry of our own country." D It expresses all the great changes England has undergone. It tells of its manners and customs, of its thoughts and feelings, of its hopes and fears, of its inner and outward life. One cannot read it without gaining an insight into the every-day experience of our forefathers. Whatever is keenly felt is sure to manifest itself in language of touching verse. And thus it has been in times gone by; the real life of the people, of the prince and the peasant, has found an utterance in the poetry of our gifted bards. Indeed, more of true history may be learnt from even the slight and almost despised Ballad, sung about the streets, than from the more dignified and solemn narrative of the historian. He takes generally what is called a deep and philosophical view of events and men and manners, but one little song sung by a few strolling minstrels before the houses of the rich or poor tells us more of what England was, and what were England's feelings, than all this pomp and parade of philosophic learning. Just indeed as one may know a man for years, and never, notwithstanding admiration for his intellect and accomplishments, get one glimpse of his heart, and yet in some unforeseen moment of sudden joy or sorrow learn for the first time the deep tenderness of his heart; so with the poetry of any land; it opens up the unselfish soul of a nation; it shows that there is the freshness of spring, when all seems sear and withered with frost and snow and sleet and winter; it reveals the love of the holy and the best, and brings down to earth, as it were, heaven in its purity and sweetness, and divine, untainted loveliness and glory. And also, poetry reveals the darker doings of mankind, opens up the terrible passions of mankind, shows human nature as it too often is, thoroughly regardless of the pure and the beautiful and the good. Yet, this is but exceptional, its spirit is rather to breathe sweet and loving accents, to gather together earth's beauties, to depict scenes of fairest loveliness, to tell of holiest sacrifices, to bring down as it were the very glories of a world beyond to a world which knows sorrow and pain and sickness and death. This our earliest period is characterized by many features which make it essentially different to all the rest. Its poetry is the rude utterance of a rude but brave people. A few missionaries of Christ were almost the only ones who helped to a purer faith and feeling. Then came wars, and invasions, and mixture of races; still the old primitive British Church, planted likely by the Apostle St. Paul, maintained her hold upon the affections of the people and influenced even her conquerors. But Rome came and conquered, Augustine came ;-then attacks from Danes, then William the Norman; thus the language became inundated with words from other nations, our own early speech was considered vulgar, the conquerors' speech prevailed. Yet notwithstanding all this confusion, the early speech of our old forefathers maintained a hold which to this day has not been lost. The poetry therefore of this period will be found to be of a varied nature, exhibiting great force and vigour, and sometimes verses of touching sweetness and beauty. BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES. CÆDMON. Cadmon is considered the earliest of our English poets. He was a man sprung from the people, and at one time in his life was a mere cowherd. He was, however, addressed one night by a stranger, as he thought, in his sleep, and asked to sing a song. He replied that he could not, when the stranger urged that he could, and that he could sing the "Creation." Cadmon then, wondering at himself, began to sing most beautiful verses. He soon afterwards awoke, and went immediately to the Reeve of Whitby, who, wise and good man that he was, took him to the abbey and told the wondrous story to the Abbess Hilda. He recounted the last night's adventure and repeated the verses, which at once obtained the admiration of the persons present. They then explained to him other parts of Holy Scripture, whereupon he went home and produced a beautiful poem. At the request of the abbess he became a monk, and continued to write poems founded on Sacred History. Our readers will notice the striking resemblance between Cadmon's account of "The Fall of Man," &c., and portions of Milton's "Paradise Lost." Conybeare, in his "Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry," says "The pride, rebellion, and punishment of Satan and his princes have a resemblance to Milton so remarkable, that most of this portion might be almost literally translated by a cento of lines from the great poet." The time of Cadmon's death is uncertain, probably about 680. ALFRED THE GREAT. Alfred the Great was the youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons, and Osburga, daughter of Oslac the Goth, who inherited the blood of the sub-kings of the Isle of Wight. At the age of five he was sent to Rome, where Leo IV. anointed him with the royal unction. When only twenty-two years of age he found himself the monarch of a distracted kingdom. After several unfortunate battles with the Danes, he disbanded his followers and wandered about the woods, and finally found shelter in the cottage of a herdsman named Denulf, at Athelney, in Somersetshire. Here occurred the interesting event which has pleased so many boys and girls-the burning of the cakes, Receiving information that Odun, Earl of Devon, had obtained a victory over the Danes in Devonshire, and had taken their magical standard, he disguised himself as a harper and obtained admission to the Danish camp, where his skill was so much admired that he was retained a considerable time, and was admitted to play before King Gorm, or Guthrum, and his chiefs. Having, by these means, gained a knowledge of his enemy, he collected his vassals and nobles, surprised the Danes at Eddington, and completely defeated them, in May, 878. The king behaved with great magnanimity to his foes, giving up the kingdom of East Anglia to those of the Danes who embraced the Christian religion. He now put his kingdom into a state of defence, and greatly increased his navy, and by his energy, activity, bravery, and wisdom the country became exceedingly prosperous. He is said to have fought fifty-six battles by sea and land, although his valour as a warrior has excited less admiration than his wisdom as a legislator. He composed a body of statutes, instituted trial by jury, divided the kingdom into shires and tithings. He was so exact in his government that robbery was unheard of, and gold chains might be left in the highways untouched. He also formed a parliament, which met in London twice a year. There was so little learning in his time, that from the Thames to the Humber hardly a man could be found who understood Latin. To remedy this state of things, he invited learned men from all parts, and endowed schools throughout the kingdom; and if indeed he was not the founder of the University of Oxford, he raised it to a reputation which it had never before enjoyed. Among other acts of munificence to that seat of learning he founded University College. He himself was a learned prince, composed several works, translated the historical works of Orosius and Bede, some religious and moral treatises, perhaps Æsop's Fables and the Psalms of David; also the Metres of Boëthius. Ho divided the twenty-four hours into three equal parts; one he devoted to the service of God, another to public affairs, and the third to rest and refreshment. In private life he was benevolent, pious, cheerful and affable; the story of his giving the poor beggar half his loaf when famished himself is one of the many things which have won for him the love and admiration of all true Englishmen. He was born at Wantage in Berkshire, 849; died 900. -See Beeton's Universal Biography, p. 50. ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER. Robert of Gloucester lived during the reigns of Henry III. and Edward I.; and composed, in verse, "The Chronicle of English Affairs," from the earliest to his own times. He was a monk of Gloucester Abbey; hence he is called Robert of Gloucester. Warton describes the work as alike destitute of art and imagination, and in many parts even less poetical than the prose history by Geoffrey of Monmouth, from which most of the events were taken. Another critic, however, speaks of his poem as in general appropriate and dramatic, proving not only his good sense, but also his cloquence. There are several copies of his work, which was edited by Hearne and published in 1724.-See Chambers, vol. i. p. 6. ROBERT DE BRUNNE. Robert de Brunne, or Robert Mannyng, a native of Brunne, in Lincolnshire, was a canon of the Gilbertine order, and resident in the priory of Sempringham ten years in the time of Prior John of Camelton, and five years with John of Clyntone. In 1303 he began his translation, or rather paraphrase, of "Manuel Péché," or "Manuel des Péchés," that is, "The Manuel of Sins." It is a long production, treating of the Decalogue and the Seven Deadly Sins, which are illustrated by many legendary stories. It was never printed, but is preserved in the Bodleian Library MSS., No. 415, and in the Harleian MSS., No. 1,701. In this work he remonstrates upon the introduction of foreign terms into the But a more important work of his is "A Metrical Chronicle of England." The former part is a translation from an old French poet, called Maister Wace, or Gasse, who copied Geoffrey of Monmouth in a poem called "Roman des Rois d'Angleterre." The second part of "De Brunne's Chronicle," beginning from Cadwallader, and ending with Edward I., is translated principally from a chronicle by Peter Langtoft, an Augustine canon of Bridlington, in Yorkshire, who is supposed to have died in the reign of Edward II., and was therefore a contemporary of De Brunne. Hearne edited De Brunne, but suppressed much of the translation. Both Ellis and Warton refer to this poet.-Alibone, vol. i. p. 269. RICHARD ROLLE. Richard Rolle, a hermit of the order of St. Augustine and doctor of divinity, who lived a solitary life near the nunnery of Hampole, four miles from Doncaster. He wrote metrical paraphrases of certain parts of Scripture, and an original poem of a moral and religious nature, entitled, "The Pricks of Conscience;" but of the latter work it is not certainly known that he composed it in English, there being some reason for believing that, in its present form, it is a translation from a Latin original written by him.-Chambers, vol. i. p. 11. ROBERT LANGLANDE. Robert Langlande was one of the first disciples of Wickliffe, and composed a curious poem, entitled "The Visions of Piers Plowman," intended as a satire on almost every description of men, but especially the clergy. It is written in blank verse, with wit and humour, in an alliterative measure.-(Sec Beeton's Dictionary of Universal Biography, p. 627.) Chambers says of this work: "The Vision of Pierce Plowman,' a satirical poem, ascribed to Robert Longlande, a secular priest, also shows very expressively the progress which was made, about the middle of the fourteenth century, towards a literary style. This poem, in many points of view, is one of the most important works that appeared in England previous to the invention of printing. It is the popular representative of the doctrines which were silently bringing about the Reformation, and it is a peculiarly national poem, not only as being a much purer specimen of the English language than Chaucer, but as exhibiting the revival of the same system of alliteration which characterized the Anglo-Saxon poetry. It is, in fact, both in this peculiarity and in its political character, characteristic of a great literary and political revolution, in which the language as well as the independence of the Anglo-Saxons had at last gained the ascendency over those of the Normans. Pierce is represented as falling asleep on the Malvern Hills, and as sceing, in his sleep, a series of visions; in describing these, he exposes the corruptions of society, but particularly the dissolute lives of the religious orders, with much bitterness."-Chambers, vol. i. p. 11. GEOFFREY CHAUCER. Geoffrey Chaucer, 1328-1400, the father of English poetry, was a native of London. His parentage and early life are involved in great obscurity, and the honour of his education is claimed by both Universities. He was a great favourite at the court of Edward III., and a devoted adherent to the celebrated John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, whose sister-in-law, Philippa de Rouet, accepted the offer of his hand. By this connection the poet became linked with the good or ill fortune which attaches to greatness. But this generally received narrative has been doubted by some critics. In 1356 we find Chaucer bearing arms in the expedition of Edward III. against France. For some time he was held as a prisoner of war by the enemy. In 1367 he was allowed an annual pension of twenty marks, between two or three hundred pounds of our present money; and in 1373 was employed in an embassy to Genoa on affairs of the State. A year later than this he was appointed Comptroller of the Customs of Wool, &c. It was during this visit to Italyhe had before travelled on the Continent-that he enjoyed some delightful converse with Petrarch, to which he alludes in the Prologue to the Clerke's Tale : "I wol you tell a tale, which that I Mr. Tyrwhitt is inclined to doubt this meeting of the poets, but De Sala promised to prove its occurrence. He died before he fulfilled the pledge. Four years before this acquaintance, Chaucer had added to the evidence of his own poetical talents by the Lament for the Death of Blanche, Duchess of Lancaster, entitled "The Book of the Duchesse." In the early part of the reign of Richard II. our poet became involved in the political religious troubles of the day, espousing the cause of John Comberton (John de Northampton), a warm champion of the doctrines of Wickliffe. Comberton was imprisoned, while Chaucer escaped the same fate by a precipitate flight to the Continent. Of course he lost his place in the Customs. He was so imprudent as to return to Londen within a short period; was committed to the Tower, and only released by disclosing the names and projects of his late associates. For this breach of confidence he subsequently experienced great remorse, and composed his "Testament of Love," in which he complains of the change in his fortunes and of the disgrace in which his conduct had involved him. Campbell, in his "Specimens of the British Poets," says, "It is not known what he revealed; certainly nothing to the prejudice of John of Gaunt, since that prince continued to be his friend. To his acknowledged partisans, who had betrayed and tried to starve him during his banishment, he owed no fidelity. It is true that extorted evidence is one of the last ransoms which a noble mind would wish to pay for liberty; but before we blame Chaucer for making any confession, we should consider how fair and easy the lessons of uncapitulating fortitude may appear on the outside of a prison, and yet how hard it may be to read them by the light of a dungeon. As far as dates can be guessed at in so obscure a transaction, his liberation took place after Richard had shaken off the domineering party of Gloucester, and had begun to act for himself. Chaucer's political errors-and he considered his share in the late conspiracy as an error of judgment, though not of intentionhad been committed while Richard was a minor, and acknowledgment of them might seem less humiliating when made to the monarch himself, than to an usurping faction ruling in his name. He was charged too, by his loyalty, to make certain disclosures important to the peace of the kingdom; and his duty as a subject, independent of personal considerations, might well be put in competition with ties to associates already broken by their treachery."-Campbell, p. 2. In 1389 his great patron returned from abroad, and Chaucer's fortunes improved. He was appointed Clerk of the Works at Westminster, and soon after to those at Windsor. He retained these offices scarcely two years, when he retired, at the age of sixty-four, to Woodstock, at which quiet town he composed his immortal "Canterbury Tales." In 1394 he received a pension of £20 per annum, and during the last year of Richard's reign he was granted yearly a tun of wine. These were continued under the new reign, with an additional pension of forty marks. He did not long live to enjoy this accession of fortune, for on the 25th of October, 1400, he died. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. "Chaucer's forte," writes a poet and critic, "is description; much of his moral reflection is superfluous; none of his painting characteristic. His men and women are not mere ladies and gentlemen, like those who furnish apologies for Boccaccio's stories. They rise before us minutely traced, profusely varied, and strongly discriminated. Their features may truly be said, "that even in the lighter strains of his muse he sought to be the instructor of the dark age in which his lot was cast." Peacham, in his "Compleat Gentleman," says, "His verses are full of good and brave moralitie." "Indeed," as Warton remarks, "if Chaucer had not existed, the compositions of Gower would have been sufficient to rescue the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. from the imputation of barbarism." JOHN BARBOUR. John Barbour, Barber, Barbere, or Barbar, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, died 1396, is one of the earliest Scottish poets and historians. The date and place of his birth are unknown. He wrote a metrical chronicle, entitled "The Bruce," which recounts the heroic deeds of Robert I. in support of his country's independence. Some writers affirm that the work was undertaken at the request of Robert's son and successor. He wrote another work, in which he gives a genealogical history of the kings of Scotland, and traces their origin to the Trojan colony of Brutus. In 1357 we find that he received from Edward III., of England, a safe-conduct in these words: "John Barber, Archdeacon of Aberdeen, with three scholars in his company. Coming in order to study in the University of Oxford, and perform his scholastic exercises." A learned writer says, "Our Archdeacon was not only famous for his extensive knowledge in the philosophy and divinity of those times, but still more admired for his admirable genius for English poetry; in which he composed a history of the life and glorious actions of Robert Bruce-a work not only remarkable for its copious circumstantial details of the exploits of that illustrious prince and his brave companions in arms, Randolff, Earl of Moray, and the Lord James Douglas, but also for the beauty of its style, which is not inferior to that of his contemporary Chaucer." |