made a poet say ingeniously, The Egyptian pastures, how great soever the drought may be, never implore Jupiter for rain. "Te propter nullos tellus tua postulat imbres, To multiply so beneficent a river, Egypt was cut into numberless canals, of a length and breadth proportioned to the different situations and wants of the lands. The Nile brought fertility every where with its salutary_streams; united cities one with another, and the Mediterranean with the Red Sea; maintained trade at home and abroad, and fortified the kingdom against the enemy; so that it was at once the nourisher and protector of Egypt. The fields were delivered up to it; but the cities, that were raised with immense labour, and stood like islands in the midst of the waters, looked down with joy on the plains which were overflowed, and at the same time enriched, by the Nile. This is a general idea of the nature and effects of this river, so famous among the ancients. But a wonder so astonishing in itself, and which has been the object of the curiosity and admiration of the learned in all ages, seems to require a more particular description, in which I shall be as concise as possible. I. THE SOURCES OF THE NILE. THE ancients placed the sources of the Nile in the mountains of the moon (as they are commonly called,) in the 10th degree of south latitude. But our modern travellers have discovered that they lie in the 12th degree of north latitude: and by that means they cut off about four or five hundred leagues of the course which the ancients gave that river. It rises at the foot of a great mountain in the kingdom of Gojam in Abyssinia, from two springs, or eyes, to speak in the language of the country, the same word in Arabic signifying eye and fountain. These springs are thirty paces from one another, each as large as one of our wells or a coach wheel. The Nile is increased with many rivulets which run into it; and after passing through Ethiopia in a very winding course, flows at last into Egypt. II. THE CATARACTS OF THE NILE. THIS name is given to some parts of the Nile, where the water falls down from the steep rocks. This river, which at first glided smoothly along the vast deserts of Ethiopia, before it enters Egypt, passes by the cataracts. Then growing on a sudden, contrary to its nature, raging and violent in those places where it is pent up and restrained; after having at last broke through all obstacles in its way, it precipitates itself from the top of some rocks to the bottom, with so loud a noise that it is heard three leagues off. The inhabitants of the country, accustomed by long practice to this sport, exhibit here a spectacle to travellers that is more terrifying than diverting. Two of them go into a little boat; the one to guide it, the other to throw out the water. After having long sustained the violence of the raging waves, by managing their little boat very dexterously, they suffer themselves to be carried away with the impetuous torrent as swift as an arrow. The affrighted spectator imagines they are going to be swallowed up in the precipice down which they fall; when the Nile, restored to its natural course, discovers them *Seneca (Nat. Quæst. l. iv. c. 2.) ascribes these verses to Ovid, but they are Tibullus's. † Excipiunt eum (Nilum) cataractæ, nobilis insigni spectaculo locus.- -Ilic excitatis primùm aquis, quas sine tumultu leni alveo duxerat, violentus et torrens per malignos transitus prosilit, dissimilis sibitandemque eluctatus obstantia, in vastam altitudinem subito destitutus cadit, cum ingenti circumjacentium regionum strepitu; quem perferre gens ibi à Persis collocata non potuit, obtusis assiduo fragore auribus, et ob hoc sedibus ad quietiora translatis. Inter miracula fluminis incredibilem incolarum audaciam accepi Bini parvula navigia conscendunt, quorum alter navem regit, alter exhaurit. Deinde multum inter rapidam insaniam Nili et reciprocos fluctus volutati, tandem tenuissimos canales tenent, per quos angusta rupium effugiunt: et cum toto flumine effusi navigium ruens manu temperant, magnoque spectantium metu in caput pixí, cum jam adploraveris mersosqu atque obrutos tantâ mole credideris, longè ab eo in quem ceciderant loce navigant, tormenti modo missi. Nec mergit cadens unda, sed planis aquis tradit.-Senec. Nat. Quæst. iv. c. 2. again, at a considerable distance, on its smooth and calm waters. This à Seneca's account, which is confirmed by our modern travellers. III. CAUSES of the inundations of the nile. THE ancients have invented many subtle reasons for the Nile's great increase, as may be seen in Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and Seneca.* But it is now no longer a matter of dispute, it being almost universally allowed, that the inundations of the Nile are owing to the great rains which fall in Ethiopia, from whence this river flows. These rains swell it to such a degree, that Ethiopia first, and then Egypt, are overflowed; and that which at first was but a large river, rises like a sea, and overspreads the whole country. Strabo observes, that the ancients only guessed that the inundations of the Nile were owing to the rains which fall in great abundance in Ethiopia: but adds, that several travellers have since been eye-witnesses of it ;† Ptolemy Philadelphus, who was very curious in all things relating to the arts and sciences, having sent thither able persons, purposely to examine this matter, and to ascertain the cause of so uncommon and remarkable an effect. IV. THE TIME AND CONTINUANCE OF the inundaTIONS. HERODOTUS, and after him Diodorus Siculus, and several other authors, declare that the Nile begins to flow in Egypt at the summer solstice, that is, about the end of June, and continues to rise till the end of September, and then decreases gradually during the months of October and November; after which it returns to its channel, and resumes its wonted course. This account agrees very nearly with the relations of all the moderns, and is founded in reality on the natural cause of the inundation, viz. the rains which fall in Ethiopia. Now, according to the constant testimony of those who have been on the spot, these rains begin to fall in the month of April, and continue, during five months, till the end of August and beginning of September. The Nile's increase in Egypt must consequently begin three weeks or a month after the rains have begun to fall in Abyssinia; and, accordingly, travellers observe, that the Nile begins to rise in the month of May, but so slowly at the first, that it probably does not yet overflow its banks. The inundation hapons not till about the end of June, and lasts the three following months, according to Herodotus. I must point out to such as consult the originals, a contradiction in this place between Herodotus and Diodorus on one side; and between Strabo, Pliny, and Solinus, on the other. These last shorten very much the continuance of the inundation; and suppose the Nile to retire from the lands in three months, or a hundred days. And what adds to the difficulty is, that Pliny seems to ground his opinion on the testimony of Herodotus: In totum autem revocatur Nilus intra ripas in libra, ut tradit Herodotus, centesimo die. I leave to the learned the reconciling of this contradiction. V. THE HEIGHT OF THE INUNDATION. THE just height of the inundation, according to Pliny, is sixteen cubits.§ When it rises but twelve or thirteen, a famine is threatened; and when it exceeds sixteen, there is danger. It must be remembered, that a cubit is a foot and a half. The emperor Julian takes notice, in a letter to Ecdicius, prefect of Egypt, that the height of the Nile's overflowing was fifteen cubits, the 20th of September, in 362. The ancients do not agree entirely with one another, nor with the moderns, with regard to the height of the inundation; but the *Herod. 1. ii. c. 19-27. Diod. 1. i. p. 35-39. Senec. Nat. Quæst. 1. iv. c. 1. et 2. † Lib. xvii. P. 789. Justum incrementum est cubitorum xvi. Minores aquæ non omnia rigant: ampliores detinent, tardids recedendo. He serendi tempora absumunt solo madente: illæ non dant sitiente. Utrumque reputat provincia. In duodecim cubitis famem sentit, in tredecim etiamnum esurit: quatuordecim cubita hilaritatem afferunt, quindecim securitatem, sexdecim delicias.-Plin. l. v. c. 9. || Jul. epist. 50. on difference is not very considerable, and may proceed, 1. from the disparity between the ancient and modern measures, which it is hard to estimate a fixed and certain foot; 2. from the carelessness of the observers and historians; 3. from the real difference of the Nile's increase, which was not so great the nearer it approached the sea. As the riches of Egypt depended on the inundation of the Nile, all the circumstances and different degrees of its increase were carefully considered; and by a long series of regular observations, made during many years, the inundation itself discovered what kind of harvest the ensuing year was likely to produce.* The kings had placed at Memphis a measure on which these different increases were marked; and from thence notice was given to all the rest of Egypt, the inhabitants of which knew, by that means, beforehand, what they might fear or promise themselves from the harvest. Strabo speaks of a well on the banks of the Nile, near the town of Syene, made for that purpose.† The same custom is observed to this day at Grand Cairo. In the court of a mosque there stands a pillar, on which are marked the degrees of the Nile's increase; and common criers every day proclaim in all parts of the city, how high it is risen. The tribute paid to the grand signior for the lands, is regulated by the inundation. The day on which it rises to a certain height, is kept as a grand festival, and solemnized with fire-works, feasting, and all the demonstrations of public rejoicing; and in the remotest ages, the overflowing of the Nile was always attended with an universal joy throughout all Egypt, that being the fountain of its happiness. The heathens ascribed the inundation of the Nile to their god Serapis; and the pillar on which was marked the increase, was preserved religiously in the temple of that idol. The emperor Constantine having ordered it to be removed into the church of Alexandria, the Egyptians spread a report, that the Nile would rise no more by reason of the wrath of Serapis ; but the river overflowed and increased as usual the following years. Julian, the apostate, a zealous protector of idolatry, caused this pillar to be replaced in the same temple, out of which it was again removed by the command of Theodosius. VI. THE CANALS OF THE NILE, AND SPIRAL PUMPS. DIVINE Providence, in giving so beneficent a river to Egypt, did not thereby intend that the inhabitants of it should be idle, and enjoy so great a blessing, without taking any pains. One may naturally suppose, that as the Nile could not of itself cover the whole country, great labour was to be used to facilitate the overflowing of the lands; and numberless canals cut, in order to convey the waters to all parts. The villages, which stood very thick on the banks of the Nile, on eminences, had each their canals, which were opened at proper times, to let the water into the country. The more distant villages had theirs also, even to the extremities of the kingdom. Thus the waters were successively conveyed to the most remote places. Persons are not permitted to cut the trenches to receive the waters, till the river is at a certain height, nor to open them altogether; because otherwise some lands would be too much overflowed, and others not covered enough. They begin with opening them in Upper, and afterwards in Lower Egypt, according to the rules prescribed in a roll or book, in which all the measures are exactly set down. By this means the water is husbanded with such care, that it spreads itself over all the lands. The countries overflowed by the Nile are so extensive, and lie so low, and the number of canals is so great, that of all the waters which flow into Egypt during the months of June, July, and August, it is believed that not a tenth part of them reaches the sea. But as, notwithstanding all these canals, there are abundance of high lands which cannot receive the benefit of the Nile's overflowing; this want is sup† Lib. xvii. P. 817. Diod. 1. i. p. 33. E 2 Socrat. 1. i. c 18. Sozom. I. v. c. S plied by spiral pumps, which are turned with oxen, in order to bring the water into pipes, which convey it to these lands. Diodorus speaks of a similar engine, called Cochlea Egyptia, invented by Archimedes, in his travels into Egypt.* VII. THE FERTILITY CAUSED BY THE NILE. THERE is no country in the world where the soil is more fruitful than in Egypt; which is owing entirely to the Nile. For whereas other rivers, when they overflow lands, wash away and exhaust their vivific moisture; the Nile, on the contrary, by the excellent slime it brings along with it, fattens and enriches them in such a manner, as sufficiently compensates for what the foregoing harvest had impaired. The husbandman, in this country, never tires himself with holding the plough, or breaking the clods of earth. As soon as the Nile retires, he has nothing to do but to turn up the earth, and temper it with a little sand, in order to lessen its rankness; after which he sows it with great ease, and at little or no expense. Two months after, it is covered with all sorts of corn and pulse. The Egyptians sow in October and November, according as the waters recede, and their harvest is in March and April. The same land bears, in one year, three or four different kinds of crops. Lettuces and cucumbers are sown first: then corn; and, after harvest, several sorts of pulse, which are peculiar to Egypt. As the sun is extremely hot in this country, and rains fall very seldom in it, it is natural to suppose, that the earth would soon be parched, and the corn and pulse burnt up by so scorching a heat, were it not for the canals and reservoirs with which Egypt abounds; and which, by the drains from thence, amply supply wherewith to water and refresh the fields and gardens. The Nile contributes no less to the nourishment of cattle, which is another source of wealth to Egypt. The Egyptians begin to turn them out to grass in November, and they graze till the end of March. Words could never ex press how rich their pastures are, and how fat the flocks and herds (which, by reason of the mildness of the air, are out night and day) grow in a very litMe time. During the inundation of the Nile, they are fed with hay and cut straw, barley and beans, which are their common food. A man cannot, says Corneille le Bruyn in his Travels, help observing the admirable providence of God to this country, who sends at a fixed season such great quantities of rain in Ethiopia, in order to water Egypt, where a shower of rain scarce ever falls; and who by that means causes the driest and most sandy soil to become the richest and most fruitful country in the universe. Another thing to be observed here is, that, as the inhabitants say, in the beginning of June, and the four following months, the north-east winds blow constantly, in order to keep back the waters, which would otherwise flow too fast; and to hinder them from discharging themselves into the sea, the entrance to which these winds bar up, as it were, from them. The ancients have not omitted this circumstance. The same Providence, whose ways are wonderful and infinitely various, displayed itself after a quite different manner in Palestine, in rendering it exceedingly fruitful; not by rains, which fell during the course of the year, as is usual in other places; nor by a peculiar inundation like that of the Nile in Egypt; but by sending fixed rains at two seasons, when his people were obedient to him, to make them more sensible of their continual dependence upon him. God himself commands them, by his servant Moses, to make this reflection. The land whither thou goest in to possess it, is not as the land of Egypt, from whence ye came out, where thou sowedst thy seed, and wateredst it with thy foot, as a garden of herbs: but the land whither ye go to possess it, * Lib. i. p. 30. et lib. v. p. 313. † Cùm cæteri amnes abluant terras et eviscerent, Nilus adeo nihil exedit nec abradit, ut contrà adjiciat vires. Ita juvat agros duabus ex causis, et quod inundat, et quod oblimat.-Senec. Nat. Quæst. I. iv. c. 2 Vol. i. Multiformis sapientia, Eph. iii. 10. Deut, xi. 10—13. After is a land of hills and valleys, and drinketh water of the rain of heaven. this, God promises to give his people, so long as they shall continue obedient to him, the former and the latter rain: the first in autumn, to bring up the corn; and the second in the spring and summer, to make it grow and ripen. VIII. THE DIFFERENT PROSPECTS EXHIBITED BY THE NILE. THERE cannot be a finer sight than Egypt at two seasons of the year.* For if a man ascends some mountain, or one of the largest pyramids of Grand Cairo, in the months of July and August, he beholds a vast sea, in which numberless towns and villages appear, with several causeys leading from place to place; the whole interspersed with groves and fruit-trees, whose tops only are visible, all which forms a delightful prospect. This view is bounded by mountains and woods, which terminate, at the utmost distance the eye can discover, the most beautiful horizon that can be imagined. On the contrary, in winter, that is to say, in the months of January and February, the whole country is like one continued scene of beautiful meadows, whose verdure enamelled with flowers, charms the eye. The spectator beholds, on every side, flocks and herds dispersed over all the plains, with infinite numbers of husbandmen and gardners. The air is then perfumed by the great quantity of blossoms on the orange, lemon, and other trees; and is so pure, that a wholesomer or more agreeable is not found in the world; so that nature, being then dead as it were in all other climates, seems to be alive only for so delightful an abode. IX. THE CANAL FORMED BY THE NILE, BY WHICH A COMMUNICATION IS MADE BETWEEN THE TWO SEAS. Ne THE canal, by which a communication was made between the Red Sea and Mediterranean, ought to have a place here, as it was not one of the least advantages which the Nile procured to Egypt. Sesostris, or, according_to others, Psammeticus, first projected the design, and began this work. cho, successor to the last prince, laid out immense sums upon it, and employed a prodigious number of men. It is said, that above six score thousand Egyptians perished in the undertaking. He gave it over, terrified by an oracle, which told him that he would thereby open a door for barbarians, for by this name they called all foreigners, to enter Egypt. The work was contiuued by Darius, the first of that name; but he also desisted from it, on his being told, that as the Red Sea lay higher than Egypt, it would drown the whole country. But it was at last finished under the Ptolemies, who, by the help of sluices, opened or shut the canal as there was occasion. It began not far from the Delta, near the town of Bubastus. It was a hundred cubits, that is, twentyfive fathoms broad, so that two vessels might pass with ease; it had depth enough to carry the largest ships, and was above a thousand stadia, that is, above fifty leagues long. This canal was of great service to Egypt. But it is now almost filled up, and there are scarce any remains of it to be seen. CHAPTER III. LOWER EGYPT. I AM now to speak of Lower Egypt. Its shape, which resembles a triangle, or delta ▲, gave occasion to its bearing the latter name, which is that of one of the Greek letters. Lower Egypt forms a kind of island; it begins at a *Illa facies pulcherrima est, cùm jam se in agros Nilus ingessit. Latent campi, opertæque sunt val les: oppida insularum modo extant. Nullum in Mediterraneis, nisi per navigia, commercium est; major que est lætitia in gentibus, quo minus terrarum suarum vident.-Senec. Nat. Quæst. 1. iv. c. 2. tHerod. l. ii. c. 158. Strab. 1. xvii. p. 804. Plin. l. vi. c. 29. Diod. 1. i. 29. P. |