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pals had every inducement to appoint only the most able teachers; and the emoluments of the rival professors (who were not astricted to celibacy) depended mainly on their fees. A blind munificence quenched this useful emulation. In the year 1719, fixed salaries and retiring pensions were assigned by the crown to the College Regents; the lieges at large now obtained the gratuitous instruction which the poor had always enjoyed, but the University declined.

THE COLLEGE IN LOUVAIN.

After Paris, no continental University was more affected in its fundamental faculty by the collegial system than Louvain. Originally, as in Paris, and the other Universities of the Parisian model, the lectures in the Faculty of Arts were exclusively delivered by the regents in vico, or in the general schools, to each of whom a certain subject of philosophy, and a certain hour of teaching, was assigned. Colleges were founded; and in some of these, during the fifteenth century, particular schools were established. The regents in these colleges were not disowned by the faculty, to whose control they were subjected. Here, as in Paris, the lectures by the regents in vico gradually declined, till at last the three public professorships of Ethics, Rhetoric, and Mathematics, perpetuated by endowment, were in the seventeenth century the only classes that remained open in the halls of the Faculty of Arts, in which, besides other exercises, the Quodlibetic Disputations were still annually performed. The general tuition of that faculty was conducted in four rival colleges of full exercise, or Pædagogia, as they were denominated, in contradistinction to the other colleges, which were intended less for the education, than for the habitation and aliment of youth, during their studies. These last, which amounted to above thirty, sent their bursars for education to the four privileged Colleges of the Faculty; to one or other of which these minor establishments were in general astricted. In the Pædagogia (with the single exception of the Collegium Porci), Philosophy alone was taught, and this under the fourfold division of Logic, Physics, Metaphysics, and Morals, by four ordinary professors and a principal. Instruction in the Litteræ Humaniores, was, in the seventeenth century, discontinued in the other three (cc. Castri, Lilii, Falconis);-the earlier institution in this department being afforded by the oppidan schools then every where established; the higher by the Collegium Gandense; and the highest by the three professors of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew literature, in the Collegium Trilingue, founded in 1517, by Hieronymus Buslidius-a memorable institution, imitated by Francis I. in Paris, by Fox and Wolsey in Oxford, and by Ximenes in Alcala de Henares. In the Pædagogia the discipline was rigorous; the diligence of the teachers admirably sustained by the rivalry of the different Houses; and the emulation of the students, roused by daily competition in their several classes and colleges, was powerfully directed toward the great general contest, in which all the candidates for a degree in arts from the different Pædagogia were brought into concourse-publicly and minutely tried by sworn examinators—and finally arranged in the strict order of merit.

THE COLLEGE IN CERMANY.

In Germany collegial establishments did not obtain the same preponderance as in the Netherlands and France. In the older universities of the empire, the academical system was not essentially modified by these institutions; and in the universities founded after the commencement of the sixteenth century, they were rarely called into existence. In Prague, Vienna, Heidelberg, Cologne, Erfurth, Leipsic, Rostoch, Ingolstadt, Tubingen, &c., we find conventual establishments for the habitation, aliment, and superintendence of youth; but these, always subsidiary to the public system, were rarely able, after the revival of letters, to maintain their importance even in this subordinate capacity.

In Germany, the name of College was usually applied to foundations destined principally for the residence and support of the academical teachers; the name of Bursa was given to houses inhabited by students, under the superintendence of a graduate in arts. In the colleges, which were comparatively rare, if scholars were admitted at all, they received free lodging or free board, but not free domestic tuition; they were bound to be diligent in attendance on the lectures of the public readers in the University; and the governors of the house were enjoined to see that this obligation was faithfully performed. The Burse, which

corresponded to the ancient Halls of Oxford and Cambridge, prevailed in all the older Universities of Germany. They were either benevolent foundations for the reception of a certain class of favored students, who had sometimes also a small exhibition for their support (bb. private): or houses licensed by the Faculty of Arts, to whom they exclusively belonged, in which the students admitted were bound to a certain stated contribution (positio) to a common exchequer (bursa-hence the name), and to obedience to the laws by which the discipline of the establishment was regulated (bb. communes). Of these varieties, the second was in general engrafted on the first. Every bursa was governed by a graduate (rector conventor ;) and in the larger institutions, under him, by his delegate (conrector) or assistants (magistri conventores). In most Universities it was enjoined that every regular student in the Faculty of Arts should enrol himself of a burse; but the burse was also frequently inhabited by masters engaged in public lecturing in their own, or in following the courses of a higher faculty. To the duty of rector belonged a general superintendence of the diligence and moral conduct of the inferior members, and (in the larger bursæ, with the aid of a procurator or economus) the management of the funds destined for the maintenance of the house. As in the colleges of France and England, he could enforce discipline by the infliction of corporeal punishment. Domestic instruction was generally introduced into these establishments, but, as we said, only in subservience to the public. The rector, either by himself or deputies, repeated with his bursars their public lessons, resolved difficulties they might propose, supplied deficiencies in their knowledge, and moderated at their private disputations.

The philosophical controversies which, during the Middle Ages, divided the universities of Europe into hostile parties, were waged with peculiar activity among a people, like the Germans, actuated. more than any other, by speculative opinion, and the spirit of sect. The famous question touching the nature of Universals, which created a schism in the University of Prague, and thus founded the University of Leipsic; which formally separated into two, the faculty of arts (called severally the via antiqua or realist, and the via moderna or nominalist), in Ingolstadt, Tubingen, Heidelberg, &c.; and occasioned a ceaseless warfare in the other schools of philosophy throughout the empire:-this question modified the German bursæ in a far more decisive manner than it affected the colleges in the other countries of Europe. The Nominalists and Realists withdrew themselves into different bursa; whence, as from opposite castles, they daily descended to renew their clamorous, and not always bloodless contests, in the arena of the public schools. In this manner the bursæ of Ingolstadt, Tubingen, Heidelberg, Erfurth, and other universities, were divided between the partisans of the Via Antiquorum, and the partisans of the Via Mod rnorum; and in some of the greater schools the s veral sects of Realism-as the Albertists, Thomists, Scotists-had burse of their "peculiar process."

The effect of this was to place these institutions more absolutely under that scholastic influence which swayed the faculties of arts and theology; and however adverse were the different sects, when a common enemy was at a distance, no sooner was the reign of scholasticism threatened by the revival of polite letters, than their particular dissensions were merged in a general syncretism to resist the novelty equally obnoxious to all-a resistance which, if it did not succeed in obtaining the absolute proscription of humane literature in the Universities, succeeded, at least, in excluding it from the course prescribed for the degree in arts, and from the studies authorized in the bursa, of which that faculty had universally the control. In their relations to the revival of ancient learning, the burse of Germany, and the colleges of France and England, were directly opposed; and to this contrast is, in part, to be attributed the difference of their fate. The colleges, indeed, mainly owed their stability-in England to their wealth-in France to their coalition with the University. But in harboring the rising literature, and rendering themselves instrumental to its progress, the colleges seemed anew to vindicate their utility, and remained, during the revolu tionary crisis at least, in unison with the spirit of the age. The burs, on the contrary, fell at once into contempt with the antiquated learning which they so fondly defended; and before they were disposed to transfer their allegiance to the dominant literature, other instruments had been organized, and circumstances had superseded their necessity. The philosophical faculty to which they belonged, had lost, by its opposition to the admission of humane letters into its course, the consideration it formerly obtained; and in the Protestant Universi

ties of the Empire a degree in Arts was no longer required as a necessary pass port to the other faculties. The Gymnasia, established or multiplied on the Reformation throughout Protestant Germany, sent the youth to the universities with sounder studies, and at a maturer age; and the public prelections, no longer intrusted to the fortuitous competence of the graduates, were discharged, in chief, by Professors carefully selected for their merit-rewarded in exact proportion to their individual value in the literary market-and stimulated to exertion by a competition unexampled in the academical arrangements of any other country. The discipline of the bursae was now found less useful in aid of the University; and the student less disposed to submit to their restraint. No wealthy foundations perpetuated their existence independently of use; and their services being found too small to warrant their maintenance by compulsory regu lations, they were soon generally abandoned.-The name Bursch alone survives.

THE COLLEGE IN ENGLAND.

In the English Universities, the history of the collegial element has been very different. Nowhere did it deserve to exercise so small an influence; nowhere has it exercised so great. The colleges of the continental Universities were no hospitals for drones; their foundations were exclusively in favor of teachers and learners; the former, whose number was determined by their necessity, enjoyed their stipend under the condition of instruction; and the latter, only during the period of their academical studies. In the English colleges, on the contrary, the fellowships, with hardly an exception, are perpetual, not burdened with tuition, and indefinite in number. In the foreign colleges, the instructors were chosen from competence. In those of England, but especially in Oxford, the fellows in general owe their election to chance. Abroad, as the colleges were visited, superintended, regulated, and reformed by their faculty, their lectures were acknowledged by the University as public courses, and the lecturers themselves at last recognized as its privileged professors. In England, as the University did not exercise the right of visitation over the colleges, their discipline was viewed as private and subsidiary; while the fellow was never recognized as a public character at all, far less as a privileged instructor. In Paris and Louvain, the college discipline superseded only the precarious lectures of the graduates at large. In Oxford and Cambridge, it was an improved and improvable system of professional education that the tutorial extinguished. In the foreign Univer sities, the right of academical instruction was deputed to a limited number of "famous colleges," and in these only to a full body of co-operative teachers. In Oxford, all academical education is usurped, not only by every house, but by every fellow-tutor it contains. The alliance between the Colleges and University in Paris and Louvain was, in the circumstances, perhaps a rational improvement; the dethronement of the University by the Colleges in Oxford and Cambridge, was without doubt, a preposterous, as an illegal, revolution.

In the mode of teaching-in the subjects taught-in the forms of graduation -and in the general mechanism of the faculties, no Universities, for a long time, resembled each other more closely than the "first and second schools of the church," Paris and Orford; but in the constitution and civil polity of the bodies, there were from the first considerable differences. In Oxford, the University was not originally established on the distinction of Nations; though, in the sequel, the great national schi-m of the Northern and Southern men had almost determined a division similar to that which prevailed from the first in the other ancient Universities.-In Oxford, the Chancellor and his deputy combined the powers of the Rector and the two Chancellors in Paris; and the inspection and control, chiefly exercised in the latter through the distribution of the scholars of the University into Nations and Tribes, under the government of Rector, Procurators, and Deans, was in the former more especially accomplished by collecting the students into certain privileged Houses, under the control of a Principal, responsible for the conduct of the members. This subordination was not, indeed, established at once; and the scholars at first lodged, without domestic superintendence, in the houses of the citizens. In the year 1231, we find it only ordained, by royal mandate, "that every clerk or scholar resident in Oxford or Cambridge, must subject himself to the discipline and tuition of some Master of the Schools," i. e., we presume, enter himself as the peculiar disciple of one or other of the actual Regents. In the same year, Tarators

are established in both universities. (See Fuller, who gives that document at length.)-By the commencement of the fifteenth century, it appears, however, to have become established law, that all scholars should be members of some College, Hall, or Entry, under a responsible head (Wood, a. 1408); and in the subsequent history of the university, we find more frequent and decisive measures taken in Oxford against the Chamberdekyns, or scholars haunting the schools, but of no authorized house, than in Paris were ever employed against the Martinets. In the foreign Universities, it was never incumbent on any, beside the students of the Faculty of Arts, to be under collegial or bursal superintendence; in the English Universities, the graduates or undergraduates of every faculty were equally required to be members of a privileged house.

By this regulation, the students were compelled to collect themselves into houses of community, variously denominated Halls, Inns, Hostles, Entries, Chambers (Aulae, Hospitia, Introitus, Camerae). These Halls were governed by peculiar statutes, established by the University, by whom they were also visited and reformed; and administered by a Principal, elected by the scholars themselves, but admitted to his office by the chancellor or his deputy, on finding caution for payment of the rent. The halls were, in general, held only on lease; but by a privilege common to most Universities, houses once occupied by clerks or students could not again be resumed by the proprietor, or taken from the gown, if the rent were punctually discharged, the rate of which was quinquennially fixed by the academical taxators. The great majority of the scholars who inhabited these halls lived at their own expense; but the benevolent motives which, in other countries, determined the establishment of colleges and private bursæ, nowhere operated more powerfully than in England. In a few houses, foundations were made for the support of a certain number of indigent scholars, who were incorporated as fellows (or joint participators in the endowment), under the government of a head. But, with an unenlightened liberality, these benefactions were not, as elsewhere, exclusively limited to learners, during their academical studies, and to instructors; they were not even limited to merit; while the subjection of the Colleges to private statutes, and their emancipation from the control of the academical authorities, gave them interests apart from those of the public, and not only disqualified them from coöperating toward the general ends of the University, but ren lered them, instead of powerful aids, the worst impediments to its utility.

The Colleges, into which commoners, or members not on the foundations, were, until a comparatively modern date, rarely admitted (and this admission, be it noted, is to the present hour wholly optional), remained also for many centuries few in comparison with the Halls. The latter were counted by hundreds; the former, in Oxford, even at the present day, extend only to nineteen. At the commencement of the fourteenth century, the number of the halls was about three hundred (Wood, a. 1307)—the number of the secular colleges, at the highest, only three.-At the commencement of the fifteenth century, when the colleges had risen to seven, a Fellow of Quee's laments that the students had diminished as the foundations had increased. At the commencement of the sixteenth century, the number of halls had fallen to fifty-five, while the secular colleges had, b fore 1516, been multiplied to twelve.-The causes which had hitherto occasioned this diminution in the number of scholars, and in the number of the houses destined for their accommodation, were, among others, the plagues, by which Oxford was so frequently desolated, and the members of the University dispersed-the civil wars of York and Lancaster-the rise of other rival Universities in Great Britain and on the Continent-and, finally, the sinking consideration of the scholastic philosophy. The character which the Reformation assumed in England, coöperated, however, still more powerfully to the same result. Of itself, the schism in religion must necessarily have diminished the resort of students to the University, by banishing those who did not acquiesce in the new opinions there inculcated by law; while among the reformed themselves, there arose an influential party, who viewed the academical exercises as sophistical, and many who even regarded degrees as Antichristian. But in England the Reformation incidentally operated in a more peculiar manner. Unlike its fate in other countries, this religious revolution was absolutely governed by the fancies of the royal despot for the time; and so uncertain was the caprice of Henry, so contradictory the policy of his

three immediate successors, that for a long time it was difficult to know what was the religion by law established for the current year, far less possible to calculate, with assurance, on what would be the statutory orthodoxy for the ensuing. At the same time, the dissolution of the monastic orders dried up one great source of academical prosperity; while the confiscation of monastic property, which was generally regarded as only a foretaste of what awaited the endowments of the Universities, and the superfluous revenues of the clergy, rendered literature and the church, during this crisis, uninviting professions, either for an ambitious, or (if disinclined to martyrdom) for a conscientious man. The effect was but too apparent; for many years the Universities were almost literally deserted.

The Halls, whose existence solely depended on the confluence of students, thus fell; and none, it is probable, would have survived the crisis, had not several chanced to be the property of certain colleges, which had thus an interest in their support. The Halls of St. Alban, St. Edmund, St. Mary, New Inn, Magdalen, severally belonged to Merton, Queen's, Oriel, New, and Magdalen Colleges; and Broadgates Hall, now Pembroke College, Gloucester Hall, now Worcester College, and Hert Hall, subsequently Hertford College, owed their salvation to their dependence on the foundations of Christ Church, St. John's, and Exeter.

The circumstances which occasioned the ruin of the halls, and the dissolution of the cloisters and colleges of the monastic orders in Oxford, not only gave to the secular colleges, which all remained, a preponderant weight in the University for the juncture, but allowed them so to extend their circuit and to increase their numbers, that they were subsequently enabled to comprehend within their walls nearly the whole of the academical population, though previously to the sixteenth century, they appear to have rarely, if ever, admitted independent members at all. As the students fell off, the rents of the halls were taxed at a lower rate; and they became at last of so insignificant a value to the landlords, who could not apply it to other than academical purposes, that they were always willing to dispose of this fallen and falling property for the most trifling consideration. In Oxford, land and houses became a drug. The old colleges thus extended their limits, by easy purchase, from the impoverished burghers; and the new colleges, of which there were four established within half a century subsequent to the Reformation, and altogether six during the sixteenth century, were built on sites either obtained gratuitously or for an insignificant price. After this period, only one college was founded-in 1610; and three of the eight halls transmuted into colleges, in 1610, 1702, and 1749; but of these, one is now extinct.

Before the era of their downfall, the establishment of a hall was easy. It required only, that a few scholars should hire a house, find caution for a year's rent, and choose for Principal a graduate of respectable character. The Chancellor, or his Deputy, could not refuse to sanction the establishment. An act of usurpation abolished this facility. The general right of nomination to the Principality, and consequently to the institution, of halls, was, "through the absolute potency he had," procured by the Earl of Leicester, Chancellor of the University, about 1570; and it is now, by statute, invested in his successors. In surrendering this privilege to the Chancellor, the Colleges were not blind to their peculiar interest. From his situation, that magistrate was sure to be guided by their heads; no hall has since arisen to interfere with their monopoly; and the collegial interest, thus left without a counterpoise, and concentrated in a few hands, was soon able to establish an absolute supremacy in the University. As the colleges only received as members those not on the foundation, for their own convenience, they could either exclude them altogether, or admit them under whatever limitations they might choose to impose. By University law, graduates were not compelled to lodge in college; they were therefore exclud d as unprofitable members, to make room for under-graduates, who paid tutor's fees, and as dangerous competitors, to prevent them from becoming tutors themselves. This exclusion, or the possibility of this exclusion, of itself prevented any graduate from commencing tutor, in opposition to the interest of the foundation members. Independently of this, there were other circumstances which would have frustrated all interference with monopoly by the fellows; but these we need not enumerate.

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