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RECENT case in which a charge of negligence was maintained against a schoolmistress and the London County Council has created an interest in the legal position of a school teacher. In this case (Foster v. London County Council), a girl, aged 11 years, sued through her father and claimed damages for personal injuries. It was alleged that the teacher ordered the child to remove a rusty broken nib from a penholder with a pair of pincers. In doing so, the nib broke, a splinter entered the eye of the child and injured it. The jury found there was negligence on the teacher's part in ordering the girl to remove the nib without giving her any directions as to how to guard against accident.

It is only a year or so ago that another teacher and his employers were held negligent and liable for damages. In this case the master sent a boy, aged 15, for a Winchester quart bottle of acid. Whilst carrying it, the boy let the bottle fall and received acid burns. It was held that the boy's hands were not large enough to grasp such a bottle, although evidence was given that boys had carried such bottles on numerous occasions.

What, then, is the teacher's position? In a matter of this kind one cannot argue from hypothetical cases, and hence a number of cases brought against members of this profession are cited. These have been chosen to bring out the following points:

(a) Who are the defendants? The teacher alone, the education authority alone, or both jointly?

(b) What kind of action constitutes negligence?

(c) What claim has the teacher if he himself is injured in the execution of his duty?

In the case of Ching v. Surrey County Council it was argued that a County Council could not be held liable for the negligence of its servant. A previous case was cited (Tozeland v. West Ham Union) where the master of a workhouse had ordered a pauper to do certain work. Whilst doing this the pauper was injured and sued the Board of Guardians for damages. It was held that the Guardians were acting in the discharge of their ministerial duties and were not liable, therefore, for the negligence of an official.

The argument that the County Council was in a similarly privileged position to a Board of Guardians was not, however, maintained, possibly because of the nature of this

case.

A child caught his foot in a hole in the playground, so injuring himself. It was submitted that since the Education Authority compelled the boy to attend school it was bound to exercise reasonable care that the children should be protected from harm whilst there. It was held that this had not been done, since the playground had not been kept in a state of good repair and safe for the use of the children. Damages were given against the County Council, and this decision was upheld on appeal.

In the case of Smith v. Martin and the Mayor and Corporation of Kingston-upon-Hull the position of the Education Authority was once again defined. The teacher, Martin, had ordered a girl to attend to the fire in the teacher's common-room. In doing so, the girl's pinafore caught fire and she was severely burnt. The plaintiff won the case, and it was held that since the teacher had ordered the girl to perform a duty for the teacher's private purpose, that is, one not necessary for the carrying-on of the school, she alone was liable and not the local authority. On appeal this decision was reversed. It was held that the same relation existed between the local authority and the teacher as did between master and servant. Hence the Education Authority was liable for the negligence of the teacher.

When a servant does an act in the proper execution of his duty and negligence results, his employers are

liable. This may be illustrated by the case of Shrimpton v. Hertfordshire County Council. A school attendance officer had contracted with a carrier to convey children to and from school. A certain child, not entitled to travel by this vehicle, but allowed to do so, presumably owing to the kindness of the officer, was injured owing, it was held, to the negligence of the driver and the non-provision of a conductor. Since the Education Authority had provided the vehicle, it was its duty to see that the children using it could do so in safety. It was further held that the child was conveyed with the consent of the Authority.

When the school is a private one, the proprietor is liable in certain cases. Thus in Williams v. Eady the proprietor was sued for damages caused by phosphorus burns. The phosphorus had been used during certain chemical lectures; after these had been disbanded at the school the phosphorus had been stored in a cupboard from which a boy had extracted the bottle containing it. The jury found that reasonable care had not been exercised in its storage, and the proprietor was held liable for damages. The second point-what is negligence?-can only be decided when all the facts of a particular case are known. The question is generally submitted to a jury, hence there are many apparently contradictory decisions. In many of these cases it seems that the judge does not hold the same view as the jury, probably because he deals with facts, whilst the sympathies of most juries are often on the side of the individual as opposed to a corporate body. But there must be always evidence of sufficient merits to go to the jury, and in at least one recorded case the judge has held that such evidence was lacking. This case, Chilvers v. London County Council and others, was one where a pupil brought to school, with the teacher's knowledge and approval, some toy soldiers, one of which was a model of a lancer, complete with lance. Another child, aged five years, fell on the lance which pierced the eye. The judge took the view that since toy soldiers are toys many children play with, and since such an accident might have happened in a nursery where there were many nurses employed in looking after the children, there was no evidence of any negligence to go before a jury. He, therefore, gave judgment for the defendants.

An important ruling was given in a case mentioned above (Williams v. Eady). At defendant's school, after certain chemical lectures had been abandoned, a bottle of phosphorus was put in a cupboard in the conservatory along with the cricket things, &c. The cupboard was supposed to be kept locked and the key kept in the kitchen. Permission was given, on request, for boys to go into the conservatory. It appeared that one had obtained possession of the key and extracted the bottle of phosphorus. Into this he put a lighted match, shook the bottle, and an explosion resulted, injuring another boy, the plaintiff, who was passing by. The judge pointed out that what was negligence was a question of degree. While it may be negligent if one left a knife where a child of four could get at it, it would not necessarily be so with boys of 18. Further, it was sometimes necessary to keep dangerous things and even leave them lying about. In this case, however, since the chemical lectures had been abandoned he could not understand why the phosphorus had been kept.

A verdict against defendant was upheld on appeal, on the grounds that the judge had directed the jury that if dangerous things were kept, such precautions as a prudent man would take should be taken, and to leave such things in the way of boys would not be reasonable care as the phosphorus was not necessary. More important to us was the statement that allowance was to be made for the

ordinary nature of boys, their tendency to meddle with things and to do mischievous acts. Had the teacher kept the cupboard locked there would be no evidence of negligence, but the jury evidently believed he had not.

Negligence was also found against the teacher in the case of Smith v. Martin, &c. where the girl was sent to poke the fire and draw the damper. This verdict was given notwithstanding the submission that the girl was aged 14, bright and intelligent, accustomed to attend to the home, and had had lessons in domestic work.

A different verdict was given in the case of Smerkinisch v. Newport Corporation. The latter authority provided and maintained a technical institution which the plaintiff, a youth of 19, attended. He asked for, and obtained, the permission of the instructor to use a small circular saw which had no guard to it. Whilst using it, he was injured, ultimately losing a thumb. A final verdict, given on appeal, was in favour of the defendants on the ground that it was not their duty to provide a guard, and so were not guilty of negligence. Neither were they liable for injury, especially since the pupil appreciated the risk he ran in using the saw and yet asked for permission to use it.

In another case, Shepherd v. Essex County Council and others, it transpired that during a chemistry lesson a boy took a piece of phosphorus, put it in his pocket, and was severely burnt. Phosphorus is kept under water and

takes fire on exposure to air. These facts, it was submitted, had not been told to the boy immediately before use, although it was shown that the boys had been warned previously, but by another master, of the dangerous nature of this substance. The judge pointed out that if there was no warning, yet if plaintiff in fact knew of the danger, there could be no leaving him in ignorance.

As an illustration of the last point-that is, can a teacher receive compensation for injuries received whilst at work? -the case of Abbott v. Isham and others may be mentioned. The headmaster of a non-provided school, whilst carrying out his duties, was injured owing to the bursting of a pipe. He submitted that he had on several occasions directed the attention of defendants to the dangerous condition of the boiler, and negligence was held against the managers of the school, even those managers elected after his last complaint, since on taking office they had been negligent in not ascertaining and remedying the defects. Although the plaintiff knew and accepted the risk, it was found that he did not do so voluntarily.

It appears, therefore, that damages may be given against a teacher's employers in any case where a jury considers that there has been negligence. This a jury seems fairly ready to do. The teacher may in turn get damages from his employers if he can prove that he has been injured as a result of their negligence.

FRANCE This year is likely to see a great step forward in the democratization of education. The Government Free Secondary has already accepted the principle of M. Schools. Herriot's proposal for free secondary education, and, unless Parliament forbid, fees in all composite secondary and higher primary schools will be abolished in October next, and step by step thereafter in all existing secondary institutions. For a long time past the exclusion of intelligent poor children from the Lycées and the inclusion of unintelligent rich has been felt to be a public reproach. Only a few years ago, indeed, the then Minister of Education (M. Bérard), adopting a suggestion of the Federation of Secondary Teachers, sought to remove the anomaly by making admission to all secondary schools depend, for rich and poor alike, on examination only. This drastic proposal was, however, rejected by the Conseil Supérieur, and the old dual system of fees with a few free places remained. But the principle of democratic unity had been affirmed, and it was evident that both the administration and the teachers were at one in demanding that money alone should no longer be the open sesame to the secondary school. Encouraged by this success, the Federation went further, and in 1926 asked for the suppression of all fees as the next step towards securing the single type" of pupil. The official decision in the same year to amalgamate certain of the smaller secondary schools (with fees) with higher primary schools (without fees) brought things to a head. Impossible, it was said, to have both free and paying pupils in the same classes. Impossible, also (for that is what it would practically have amounted to) to make the "humanities the one purchasable branch of education-a monopoly for those who could pay for them. Hence the recent decision of the Government. But it is still felt in the more democratic quarters, that free places all round are not in themselves enough, and that a much greater extension must be given to the system of "maintenance," especially in the secondary schools, where hitherto it has been almost unknown.

POLAND

The following statement is based on information contained in Bulletin No. 5 of the International Bureau of

A Pioneer. Education (Geneva). "Poland is very proud

of her educational record. It was she who established the first Ministry of Public Instruction, and in the eighteenth century her first secondary schools were instituted to train reformers' --some of whom, however, inspired by the spirit of liberty of the new education, had too often occasion to realize the truth of the words of one of them: Education worthy of the name is only possible in a free country.' During the long period of her oppression progress in the schools stopped. The national language was stifled. The traditions of reform seemed dead. They continued,

however, to exist in secret, and even the period of martyrdom had its good effects. A clandestine instruction arose based on respect for the individual, an ideal of social responsibility, and self-instructive methods. This movement concerned itself nct only with primary and secondary schools and university, but also with continuation classes and adult education."

The first Russian revolution in 1905 stimulated many social and patriotic movements in Poland- such, for A Children's instance, as the ' Crusade of the Children' Crusade. against the Russian schools. The liberty then won allowed the organization of private Polish schools, based on the principles of the new education. Associations of teachers worked out programmes for an École unique. And so it came about that Poland, once free, did not inherit a rigid official tradition only, but something broader and freer. Since the foundation of the Republic in 1919 all education has developed rapidly. Primary schools have increased from eighteen thousand to twenty-seven thousand, and attendance from 65 to 90 per cent. Education is compulsory and free. Private schools are allowed, but under State oversight. There are special classes for abnormals. Post-primary instruction is to be made compulsory for all boys and girls from 14 to 18 who are not at secondary schools. Agricultural schools are already numerous. Co-operative (sic) schools, self-government, Scouts and Guides are encouraged. Associations of teachers are concerning themselves especially with training. But they are also insisting on more direct collaboration with the authorities. A few experimental schools are working out original methods based on the psychology of the Polish child and his environment. But it is above all in post-graduate and extra-school work that the new spirit of freedom is most fully realizing itself."

NEW ZEALAND

The latest Report of the Minister of Education (issued June, 1927, and running to more than two hundred Post-Primary. pages) refers to "marked progress" in postprimary education. The following sentences reflect the universal tendency. The traditional, ecclesiastical type of education is at last losing its hold. . . . A demand has arisen for something bearing on the future occupations of the pupils. . . . Hence varied general courses, including not only cultural subjects, but practical occupations calculated to reveal inclinations and aptitudes. In all this secondary schools are drawing nearer to technical high schools, and there will presently be little difference between these two types of post-primary institutions." Retardation in the primary schools is still a disturbing problem. An investigation by the Department reveals nearly nine thousand extreme retardates" (children of 10, for instance, in infant-classes). This is about 4 per cent of the total school population. But in the

Retardation.

returns furnished by teachers only three thousand of these extreme cases are stated to be due to "lack of intelligence." And of these only a third are classified as mentally deficient. "There is thus (comments the Report) reasonable ground for believing that some two thousand children need teaching in special classes, whereas at present not more than three hundred are so provided for. It is evident that considerable extension of this important work is needed."

Of the five thousand students in the four Colleges which make up the University of New Zealand, nearly half are entirely

THE APPROACH TO ART THROUGH DESIGN Drawing Design and Craftwork: for Teachers, Students, etc. By F. J. GLASS. Second Edition. (125. net. Batsford.)

We heartily welcome this revised and enlarged second edition of a book which has already proved its usefulness to many teachers and students. Books like this are not written to order, but are the outcome of the day-to-day experiment of a conscientious art master, who, in due course, publishes the results of his experience for the benefit of others.

Since the first appearance of Drawing Design and Craftwork" Mr. Glass has written his book on "Design and Composition," which shows him to be a whole-hearted advocate of what has been called the structural or synthetic method of teaching. This book should be read and used in conjunction with the earlier work, which, with its wealth of illustrations, aims at a comprehensive survey of all the branches of art work which are likely to find a place in the curriculum of secondary schools, rather than at a theory of teaching, as is the case in the more recent work. Possibly the least satisfactory part of an excellent book is the section on "colour." The red, yellow, and blue theory is no doubt convenient for the study of pigment mixing, but it forms no sound basis for the study of colour harmony. There is no need for discrepancy between the teaching of the art master and that of the science master. The consideration of the true scientific complementaries does not clash with the practical need for a paint-box containing red, yellow, and blue. It is not, however, the intention of this notice to pick holes in a book we look on as an old friend, but rather to congratulate both author and publisher on the many qualities which have led to its well-deserved success.

A CYCLOPEDIA OF MUSIC

Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians.

Edited by H. C. COLLES. Third Edition. In Five Volumes. Vol. I. (30s. net. Macmillan.)

The outstanding event of the musical year 1927, is undoubtedly the issue of the third edition of Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians." We all know and love our "Grove"; it has been the pleasant, if onerous, duty of Mr. Colles to edit the present edition, bring it up to date and in line with contemporary thought in music. He has acquitted himself well of a most difficult task. It would be quite easy to "pick holes" in "Grove." For instance, I failed to find anything under the heading of "Broadcasting"-not even "See Wireless "--but doubtless in later volumes, one will get the information one desires. However, the new Grove" is a most fascinating book. It has made its appearance at a most opportune moment. All sorts of schemes are in the air. Community singing, a scheme to establish National opera, by Sir Thomas Beecham, and-now, as we go to press the amazing device of Prof. Theremin, who, with a wave of the hand, produces music from the ether. But let us return to our Grove." Surely this edition will be found in every public library, and in every school library, that professes to be in touch with contemporary thought in music. In spite of the Modernists," we have much to learn from the past;

and Mr. Colles has been fortunate in his collaborators, as the following list of names will convince the most sceptical, that he has endeavoured to bring a most constructive outlook on a subject which embraces, or should embrace, every shade of musical opinion. We have only space to pick our few examples of new articles, indicating the range both of subject and contributor.

Bach, by Prof. Sanford Terry, Mus. D., Copyright by G. Herbert Thring; Débussy, by Ernest Walker; Elgar, by the Editor; Madrigal, by Prof. E. J. Dent, of Cambridge University; Polyphony (sixteenth century), by R. O. Morris. In addition to these most illuminating articles, there is a remarkable collection of reproductions of ancient and modern musical instruments, selected by the Rev. Canon F. W. Galpin, a great authority on the subject. The plates illustrating these are most excellently done, as all those who know the works of the great house of Macmillan would expect.

The editor has been wise in enlisting to his aid many well-known modern musicians, and in their various articles they have made notable contributions to the art of music. We instance but a few; and these are taken at random from the long list of contributors arranged in alphabetical order: Herbert Antcliffe, Esq., Eric Blom; Leonard Borwick, Dr. Percy Buck, M. D. Caivocoressi; W. W. Cobbett; Sir H. Walford Davies; Dr. Geo. Dyson; The Rev. E. H. Fellowes; The Rev. Canon F. W. Galpin ; Harvey Grace; Charles L. Graves; Sir Henry Hadow; Ivor James; Dr. C. S. Terry; Dr. Ernest Walker; Dr. R. Vaughan Williams.

To select and edit the writings from such a list, which is by no means exhaustive, must have been a Herculean task, and we have nothing but praise for the editor who has so successfully fulfilled it.

In so doing, he has rendered a real service to the art of music, and, as the art progresses and develops, "Grove" 1927, edited by H. C. Colles, will stand as a lighthouse, for it is built on the rock of previous knowledge, and, if read aright, cannot fail to be a sure guide to progress.

THE POETIC TRADITION

The Classical Tradition in Poetry: The Charles Eliot Norton Lectures. By G. MURRAY. (12s. 6d. net. Oxford University Press.)

If he had not already made use of that title for his presidential address to the Classical Association, Prof. Murray might have called this volume "Religio Grammatici-the Religion of a Man of Letters." To a reader who can recall the days when a certain brilliant young Oxford scholar of twenty-four, more than a little suspected of revolutionary ideas in literature and politics, was chosen to succeed R. C. Jebb as Professor of Greek at Glasgow, it is intensely interesting to note the conservatism which, after the idealism and the ethical earnestness which have never been absent from Prof. Murray's writing, is certainly the distinguishing feature of these lectures. Here, assuredly, Old experience doth attain

To something like prophetic strain "; but all the eloquence is on the side of literary tradition and against modern anarchy. Nothing is more

characteristic of the present age than that a large part of its literature is being produced, for the first time since English literature began, by clever men and women whose acquaintance with the literary tradition is entirely superficial, and who, in consequence, are not unnaturally in revolt against its claims. They think of the past as a tyranny to be thrown off, and are blind to the fact that to reject the past is to sacrifice the precious heritage of the labours of all the finest spirits in all the generations. Those who imagine that the old Aristotelian dicta about art being "imitation," or about the essential unities of the

drama, or the old classical measurements of verse, have been finally killed and buried by modern theory and practice, will discover with astonishment that they are vigorously alive in Prof. Murray's pages. He is even of opinion that our modern cult of self-expression is producing baneful results; it is making art self-conscious, whereas the true artist loses himself in his work. Since" Essays in Criticism appeared, there has been no stronger plea for literature " of the centre and against all anarchy and eccentricity. And not even "Essays in Criticism" are richer in sayings that deserve to be pondered and remembered.

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Russian Literature. By J. LAVRIN. (6d. Benn.)

In spite of its small scale and modest price, this is not a superficial sketch, but a very competent critical introduction to its subject. It will be of interest to all English readers of the great masters of Russian fiction.

The Dancing Master: A Story of Nelson's Days. By MARGARET B. REED. (2s. 3d. Arnold.)

Adorned with six illustrations by the author, this story of a French dancing-master who turns out to be a spy, and whose plot is foiled by a boy of twelve, is, if not strikingly original in conception, full enough of surprises to be very engrossing. The adventures of the boy hero at Portsmouth; on a French farm near Boulogne, where he has an encounter with Napoleon; and at sea, where he finally views from a distance the fighting off Trafalgar, are all credible, simply told, and certainly calculated to increase the interest of young readers in a thrilling period of our history.

(1) How Coal is Won. By Prof. H. BRIGGS. (10d. Nelson.) (2) The Book of Trains. By A. WILLIAMS. (1od. Nelson.)

Clear and detailed illustrations aid greatly in the understanding of the text of these useful little class-books, both written in the most careful and painstaking way. The wealth of information in (1) is lightened by many conversations and anecdotes.

The Socrates Booklets. XV. Selections from Byron. Edited by W. R. MACKLIN. XVI. Charles Lamb. Selections from Elia and the Last Essays of Elia. Edited by B. C. W. JOHNSON. XVII. Christopher Marlowe. Edward the Second. Edited by Prof. A. A. Cock. (Is. each paper; Is. 3d. each cloth. Black.)

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If the Socrates Booklets may be said to have a blemish, it is their cheerless and uninviting outside. Inside, they provide at trifling cost well-printed and well-edited texts, furnished, besides notes, with varieties of questions, arranged in three degrees of difficulty, the third or C grade of which should be a special boon to the teacher, while the list of books suggested for further study should be a help to pupils trained to consult the school library. Three Oxford Ironies: Being Copleston's I Advice to a Young Reviewer," Mansel's Phrontisterion, or Oxford in the Nineteenth Century" and the Oxford Ars Poetica. Edited by G. GORDON. (3s. 6d. net. Oxford University Press.) All three skits were worth reviving, but they needed notes and introductions to make them fully intelligible to modern readers, and these Prof. Gordon's wit and learning admirably qualified him to supply. Copleston's mock review of "L'Allegro," in the manner of the Edinburgh Reviewers, who cultivated flippancy and an air of superiority to the great poets whom they criticized, is an excellent piece of fooling, though not, perhaps, as witty as Canning's youthful parody in the Microcosm of Addison's critiques of Paradise Lost." Mansel's "Phrontisterion" gains in interest from its applicability to yet another university commission; and How to write a Newdigate will preserve its point as long as examiners prescribe subjects to the muse and budding poets strive to be spontaneously inspired upon a dictated theme.

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Composition Through Story-Writing a Book for Adventurers. By R. T. LEWIS. (3s. 6d. net. Harrap.)

The author of this book (the result of an experiment extending apparently over five years) disclaims originality for the idea, which was suggested by Stevenson's account of the genesis of Treasure Island, but the details of development, as described in Part I, show him to be possessed of originality and humour. He claims for this method of teaching composition by the gradual

building-up of a continuous story that his pupils were compelled to read more widely and critically than is done for the usual isolated essay, where they trust mostly to memory for their material, and rarely trouble to change their ordinary phraseology. Confronted with difficulties of dialogue, character-drawing, or description in their tale, they had perforce to find out how more skilful writers had dealt with similar situations, and they therefore learnt to study a book for the sake of structure and style. That an aggregate of 500 books should have been consulted by the class of thirty boys is a great tribute to the success of the method, and it meant besides that a link had been established between the school and the public library likely to be of permanent value to the boys. This is a work that no teacher of English composition can afford to ignore, and it can be recommended as cordially for its intrinsic interest as for its utility.

Further Forensic Tables. By O. (3s. 6d. net. Butterworth.) The Legends of Flowers: Leggende dei Fiori or " 'Tis Love that makes the World go Round." Translated from the Italian of Paolo Mantegazza by Mrs. ALEXANDER KENNEDY. (5s. net. Werner Laurie.)

A Companion to English Literature. By D. VENTHAM and M. E. KING. (3s. 6d. Murray.)

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Grammar in a New Setting. By G. N. PocoсK. (Is. 6d. Dent.) The Middlesex Book of Verse: Collected Poems by Students of the Middlesex Education Committee's Secondary Schools. (4s. 6d. net. University of London Press.) Even apart from the alluring, if somewhat improbable, chance that a real poet-to-be may be discoverable, collections of schoolboy and schoolgirl verses have a fascination. When they are not purely imitative, they reveal something of the boy-and-girl mind which is seldom revealed in any other way. This particular collection is no exception to the rules. Once indeed, in the stanzas entitled Age," where the youthful composer has imaginatively realized the feelings of an old man, a high level of authentic poetry is reached. But there are delightful touches of the true fire in Evening in the Garden," Home," The School Field," The Blackbird," among others. The least successful part of the book is the parodies, some of which are merely jumbled recollections of phrases. The true parody (for example, Calverley's of Tennyson's Brook") enters into the spirit of the original. The book is attractively illustrated by students of the Hornsey and Willesden Schools of Art. (1) Pippa Passes: a Drama. By R. BROWNING. Edited by Dr. E. A. PARKER. (2) A Third Book of Modern Poetry. Selected and Arranged by H. A. TREBLE. (IS. 9d. each. Macmillan.)

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These two additions to Macmillan's 'English Literature Series are both of some interest. Pippa Passes" (1) should have been made available for schools long ere this. It is Browning at his best, but even so, some helps to interpretation are necessary, and Dr. Parker is a careful editor. All the pieces in Mr. Treble's "Third Book (2), with two exceptions, are probably new to the schools, which seldom come into contact with contemporary poetry of a more ambitious flight than the short lyric. Mr. Binyon's" Bacchanal of Alexander is specially

welcome.

Thomas the Rhymer and Other Plays. By K. F. DUNLOP. (2s. 6d. net. Stockwell.)

Poems 1924-1926. By MARGOT E. BARTLETT. (Is. 6d. net. Stockwell.)

A Village Tragedy and Other Poems. By EILEEN E. SMITH. (IS. 6d. net. Stockwell.)

Poems. By CONSTANCE JENKINS. (3s. 6d. net. Stockwell.)

University of London, University College. Centenary Addresses Bound Together in One Volume. 12s. 6d. net. University of London Press.)

This book is a worthy record of a great occasion. University College taken by itself is a great fact. Taken in its wider significance it stands for one of the biggest developments in our educational history. It led the way in making a university education possible for men (and women) of all classes and creeds, and it led the way in giving natural science and other modern studies their rightful places in higher education. The century's work in each important academic pursuit is reviewed by a distinguished authority, and there are more general utterances by Mr. G. K. Chesterton and others.

E. DELLER. (2s. net. University of London Press.) This is an account of impressions gathered during some months spent in the United States for the express purpose of studying the universities of that country. Few Englishmen are so well qualified by experience and temperament as Dr. Deller to form accurate though necessarily rapid impressions of the work of a university, and to give a fair-minded and justly balanced account of what he has seen. The tone of his monograph is admirable. He gives himself none of the superior airs which a visitor from an older civilization is apt to assume with regard to the higher education of a country whose culture has to keep pace, as well as may be, with an amazing growth of population and industry. Dr. Deller sees the difficulties and shows a frank appreciation of the ways in which they are met. The Lord's Minstrel (A Simple History of S. Francis of Assisi). By CAROLINE M. D. JONES. (7s. 6d. net. Heffer.) A well-printed, richly illustrated book giving a simple popular account of St. Francis. It would form an admirable gift-book or prize book.

Educational Yearbook of the International Institute of Teachers' College, Columbia University, 1926. Edited by Prof. I. L. KANDEL. (15s. net. New York: Macmillan.) These annual year-books have become indispensable to students of comparative education. With the present volume (the third) the educational systems of thirty-seven countries have been described, while each volume continues the accounts of the progress of education in England, France, Germany, and the United States. The new volume deals with elementary education in fourteen countries, and secondary education in three, each chapter being contributed by an expert educationalist from the country concerned. There is also a bibliography of all the educational books published during 1926 in each of these countries. The introduction by the editor is extremely able and interesting; he suggests that the most pressing problem in education at the moment is that of the training of teachers, which still perpetuates the traditional attitude to the elementary school, socially and educationally, and lags far behind modern theory. Teaching in the elementary field is not a profession, but a vocation for which a preparation corresponding to apprenticeship is adequate." The remedy must be sought on the lines of medical training, with its careful integration of the various subjects of the profession and of its practice. Whether this can be done best in the universities or in special professional institutions will be seen in a few years when the be results of the Prussian and of the Saxon systems can compared.

Columbus-Undergraduate.

By J. A. BENN. (6s. London: Benn. Philadelphia: Lippincott.) Education in a Democratic World. By E. DE WITT BURTON. Edited by H. R. WILLOUGHBY. (15s. net. University of Chicago Press. London: Cambridge University Press.) The Changing College. By E. H. WILKINS. (7s. 6d. net. University of Chicago Press. London: Cambridge University Press.)

The Community Use of Schools. By Dr. ELEANOR T. GLUECK. (13s. 6d. net. Baltimore: The Williams and Wilkins Co. London Baillière, Tindall & Cox.)

A companion volume to the author's Education of Handicapped Children," published some three years ago in the same series the Riverside Text-Books in Education. While the earlier volume dealt with the teaching of such children, the present book is concerned with psychological methods of mental diagnosis, and the two volumes together constitute a useful guide to the proper treatment of defective children. The new volume, though dealing with theory rather than practice, is based on the individual examination of thousands of cases, and reveals again and again the hand of the skilled practitioner. It is probably the only text-book in English which supplies a survey of the entire field of clinical psychology, and will therefore be extremely useful as an introduction to the subject. Psychology by Experiment. By Prof. L. W. KLINE and F. L. KLINE. (8s. 6d. net. Ginn.)

An Introduction to Psychology. By Prof. J. J. B. MORGAN and Prof. A. R. GILLILAND. (7s. net. New York: Macmillan.) How We Behave: an Induction to Psychology. By Prof. A. E. HEATH. (Cloth, 2s.; paper, Is. Longmans.)

The

Of these three introductions to psychology, the first is a laboratory manual, designed to give the student the necessary practice while learning the fundamental laws of the science. It contains most of the standard experiments with many original additions, and is extremely well printed and illustrated. second is a very elementary text-book designed for the use of secondary schools. The authors feel that such a course will help the adolescent to make the necessary mental adjustments of this difficult stage, to adopt a scientific attitude to mental phenomena, and to learn to use his mind to the best advantage. The chapters on The Nervous System and Perception are particularly clear, and contain excellent illustrations, many of which are reprinted from Ladd and Woodworth. The book may encourage English teachers to try the experiment of a short course in psychology with their older pupils. The outlook of Prof. Heath's book is entirely different; its aim is not to present acts for students to assimilate, but rather to set people thinking

PHILOSOPHY

for themselves about their own and their neighbours' behaviour. The book begins by a discussion of how psychology is studied and what it studies, and thus gives some idea of the continuous historical development of psychology. The rest of the book deals with animal behaviour, and the progress of human behaviour towards a more unified response of the self and complete adjustment to the environment. The author evidently owes much to McDougall, but he firmly rejects his view of instinct as an inner driving force urging the organism to achieve the ends of its being. This notion, he says, has laid upon the human mind the dead weight of mechanism-as teleology always does in the long run. Though very small and very cheap, the book is packed with meat and flavoured with mother-wit. The W.E.A. is to be congratulated on this addition to its series of Outlines."

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Mental Tests: Their History, Principles, and Applications. By Prof. F. N. FREEMAN. (8s. 6d. net. Harrap.)

The outstanding feature of Prof. Freeman's book is its comprehensiveness. It seeks to cover the field completely, including not only the varieties of intelligence tests, but also tests of special capacities, and "non-intellectual or personality tests.'' The value of the book is enhanced by the closing chapters on the educational and the vocational uses of tests, the relation of intelligence to delinquency, the interpretation of intelligence tests, and the nature of intelligence. Prof. Freeman takes the moderate view of what mental tests have accomplished and are likely to accomplish. He has no sympathy with the extremists who over-rate or under-rate their value. We regard this book as the best review of the whole subject that has been produced. The Moral Self: an Introduction to the Science of Ethics. By Prof. C. L. SHERMAN. (12s. 6d. net. Ginn.)

This is an interesting text-book on broad lines, presenting the main problems of the ethical self in untechnical language. The author traces the genesis of the moral self from biological foundations, and leads up gradually to metaphysical implications. The last chapter sets forth a constructive philosophy of moral personality. An excellent feature of the book is the list of references which is appended to each section.