had forborne for a long time, but at length adopted measures of retaliation and defence. A provisional army of regular troops was established, and the navy was increased by several frigates. Washington was appointed, by the unanimous consent of the senate, lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States. This illustrious citizen died shortly afterwards, on the 14th of December 1799, leaving behind the character of one of the most pure of patriots. When information of his death reached congress, resolutions expressive of the national grief for a public loss were adopted; and it was recommended to the people of the United States to wear crape for thirty days-a measure which was universally adopted. Hostilities between the United States and France continued only a few months, and were altogether confined to the ocean. Two severe and well-fought actions took place between frigates, in both of which the Americans were victorious; the first between the frigate Constellation, of 38 guns, and the French frigate L'Insurgente, of about equal force, in which the latter was captured; the second was between the same American frigate and La Vengeance, of superior force, which made her escape in the night, after having, it was believed, struck her colours.

338. In 1811 a revolution took place in the administration of public affairs. The democratic or republican party, having become the majority, succeeded in elevating their candidate Mr. Jefferson to the presidency, in opposition to Mr. Adams. During the first term of his official career the United States enjoyed a singular degree of commercial prosperity, while the benefits of free institutions were visible in the elevated character and happy condition of the people. The European war, a cessation of which had taken place, was renewed, after a short breathing time, in 1803. The principal belligerents, whose wide-spread schemes of hostility towards each other had, during the administration of preceding presidents, occasionally and seriously affected neutrals, began about 1806 to pursue a more injurious course. For the purpose of cutting off the trade with France, the British government declared a part of the French coast in a state of blockade, without pursuing the ancient mode of stationing a naval armament to enforce it. The emperor Napoleon retaliated by an edict of a similar nature, the execution of which was evidently impracticable in the state of the French marine. The English then issued their memorable orders in council, by which they forbade any trade whatever with France or her dependencies under penalty of seizure; and in a subsequent decree Napoleon declared all neutral vessels denationalized which should suffer themselves to be visited by an English vessel of war. Public indignation was strongly excited by an unjustifiable attack upon the frigate Chesapeake, which was afterwards disavowed by the British government; and was continually roused by fresh accounts of the imprisonment of American seamen from on board their own ships, as being English. It is stated, by those acquainted with the British navy at that period, that they amounted to several thou

sands. War was loudly demanded by one party, but it was believed the country was not prepared for it. A system of restrictions upon commerce, which should operate towards both belligerents, was therefore attempted. In December 1807 an embargo was laid on all American vessels, the restrictions of which were enforced by several subsequent acts. After trying an experiment of more than a year, and when it was found that this measure did not produce the desired effect in Europe, congress, yielding to the earnest petitions of the commercial interest, repealed the embargo law, and substituted an act interdicting the commercial intercourse with both Great Britain and France; but giving to the president authority to remove the restriction in case of an amicable arrangement. In the year 1809, Mr. Jefferson having declined a re-election, James Madison was chosen president. In April an arrangement was made with Erskine, the British minister, by which the latter engaged on the part of his government for the repeal of the obnoxious orders, and the president consented on the other hand to the renewal of the commercial intercourse between the two countries. The British government, however, did not think proper to ratify this act of their minister, on the ground of its having been concluded without sufficient authority. The non-intercourse with Great Britain was consequently renewed. August 1810 the French government officially announced to the American minister at Paris, that the Berlin and Milan decrees would cease to operate on the first of November ensuing. The president accordingly issued a proclamation on the second of November, declaring that the intercourse between the United States and France might lawfully be renewed. The Indians had been again excited to war on the north-west. In November 1811 an action was fought at Tippecanoe, between an army of regulars and militia commanded by Governor Harrison, and a large body of Indians, in which the latter were defeated with the loss of upwards of 170 killed and wounded.

In

339. The system of restrictions upon commerce was continued until 1812, when the American government deemed it necessary to adopt more decided and effective measures. With a view to hostilities the president was authorized to augment the number of the regular army: volunteers were accepted; and the few frigates belonging to the navy were ordered to be fitted out. War was declared on the 18th of June 1812, having been recommended by the president in a message to both houses. Notwithstanding the length of time in which hostilities had been meditated, they were commenced with a very imperfect state of preparation on the part of the Americans. An addition to the regufar army of twenty-five thousand men had been authorized; but few of them had been enlisted. Few persons were found sufficiently acquainted with military science to act as officers; and the volunteers and militia were undisciplined. In consequence of these imperfect preparations, and the want of sufficient foresight in other respects on the part of the government, the early operations of the war were marked by singular

ill-success. An army, composed principally of volunteers and militia, under the command of General Hull, invaded Canada from the Michigan territory in July; and, after a brief possession of a portion of the enemy's country, fell back to Detroit. The British having the command of the lake immediately cut off his communication with the state of Ohio, from which he had derived his supplies. Two attempts made to open the route failed of success. In this situation a British force, under General Brock, advanced against the American troops; and, without waiting an attack, General Hull surrendered his army prisoners of war. He was afterwards tried by a court-martial, and condemned to be shot. The president approved the sentence, but remitted the punishment in consequence of the age and revolutionary services of the general. On the Niagara frontier the operations of the Americans were almost equally unfortunate. About 1000 troops, commanded by General Van Rensselaer, crossed the river in November, and attacked the British at Queenstown. They were at first successful; but not receiving the expected reinforcements, and their retreat to the opposite shore being cut off, they were after an obstinate engagement compelled to surrender.

340. The disappointment arising from the failure of these military enterprises was in some measure balanced by the success of the Americans on the ocean. On the 20th of August, 1812, the United States' frigate Constitution of fifty-four guns fell in with the British frigate Guerriere of forty-nine guns. In the space of thirty minutes the fire of the Constitution reduced her to a sinking state, and she was forced to surrender with the loss of 100 men killed, wounded, and missing. On board the Constitution seven only were killed, and seven wounded. This exploit was followed by others of a similar nature. On the 25th of October, the frigate United States of fifty-four guns, commanded by Captain Decatur, engaged and captured the British frigate Macedonian of forty-nine guns, after an action of an hour and a half. In November the British sloop-of-war Frolic was captured by boarding, after a severe engagement with the American sloop-of-war Wasp of inferior force. Before the close of this year the frigate Constitution, being off the coast of Brazil, encountered and captured the British frigate Java. Not long afterwards the sloop-of-war Hornet fell in with and captured the British sloop-of-war Peacock of superior force, after an action of only eight minutes. The commander of the Hornet was subsequently promoted to the frigate Chesapeake, and met a reverse of fortune. On the second of June 1813 he encountered the frigate Shannon immediately after leaving the port of Boston. In eight minutes the captain of the Chesapeake was killed, and in fifteen minutes the ship struck to the Shannon.

341. The military operations of the year 1813 were productive of alternate success and reverses. The north-western frontier, on which the arms of the republic had met with a signal disaster, was again the theatre of misfortune and bloodshed. After the capture of Hull's army, the government immediately called out detach

ments of the militia and volunteers from Kentucky, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, and placed the whole under the command of General Harrison. The object proposed in the first instance was the recovery of Detroit. In pursuance of his plans General Winchester was sent forward to the rapids of Miami with about 800 men, with directions to commence the building of huts. Early in January he arrived at this post, and formed a fortified camp; but hearing of an intended attack upon Frenchtown at the river Raisin by the Indians, he moved forward to that place. Here, on the morning of the 22nd of January, he was suddenly attacked by a large force of British and Indians. The Americans were surrounded and surprised; and, though they fought with courage, they found themselves compelled to surrender to the number of about 1500. After the battle the English commenced their march towards Malden, leaving the prisoners in the charge of the Indians. A most barbarous massacre ensued, and of those who escaped the tomahawk or the flames many were sold into captivity. It was stated by the Americans that no effort was made to save these unfortunate soldiers, although it had been expressly engaged that they should be protected. On the Ontario frontier the American arms enjoyed a brief advantage. York, the seat of government of Upper Canada, being abandoned by the British, was taken possession of by troops under the command of General Dearborn on the 27th of April. When the Americans were within a short distance of the British works, after they had driven back the troops with the bayonet, an explosion took place from a magazine previously prepared for the purpose, by which about one hundred were killed; among whom was the commander of the detachment, General Pike, an officer of distinguished military talents and bravery, whose loss was deeply lamented. His troops, however, took possession of the fort; and, having destroyed or removed most of the public stores, the army evacuated York.

342. On the 27th of May a detachment proceeded to attack Fort George, which surrendered after a sharp contest. During the absence of General Dearborn with the troops from Sacket's Harbour, an attempt was made upon that post by a formidable force under Sir George Prevost. They were received, however, with so much coolness and good conduct by General Brown, with a small body of militia, volunteers, seamen, and regulars, that they retreated. At the Beaver Dams near Fort George, a detachment of Americans under the command of Generals Chandler and Winder, were surprised at night by a British party, and both the generals ingloriously captured. On the borders of Lake Erie the campaign opened with an attack by the British upon Fort Sandusky, in which they were repulsed with loss, by the gallant commander Major Croghan. After the defeat and capture of General Winchester, General Harrison concentrated his forces at the Rapids, where he erected Fort Meigs. The British forces advanced to this place, and commenced a siege in May 1813; in which they were unsuccessful. Notwithstanding the repulse of a body of Kentuc

kians, who, descending the river to the relief of the fort, were defeated by the British forces, the siege was raised without any great loss having been incurred by either party. In the mean time great exertions had been making to gain the ascendency on Lake Erie. The American squadron, commanded by Commodore Perry, consisted of nine vessels carrying fifty-four guns; the British, of six vessels with sixty-three guns. On the morning of the 10th of September the two squadrons encountered each other. The action was long and well contested, and, at one period, the principal American vessel had struck her colours. A bold and unusual manœuvre of the American commander, however, decided the fortune of the day. After an action of three hours the whole British squadron surrendered, not a single vessel escaping. This victory relieved the entire north-western frontier from the presence of the enemy. General Harrison hastened to take advantage of the facilities it afforded. He embarked his main army on board of the American squadron, and, landing on the Canadian shore, immediately marched in pursuit of the enemy. Near the river Thames an action was fought on the 5th of October, which terminated in the total defeat and dispersion of the British army. With this action ended the important occurrences of the war on the north-western frontier.

343. During the early part of the war the Atlantic frontier enjoyed comparative peace. In the spring of 1813 a series of devastating hostility began on the shores of the Chesapeake, which reflected no honour on the British arms. With the hope of obtaining possession of Norfolk, an attack was made on Craney Island, which eventuated in the total defeat of the invaders. The small town of Hampton was, however, taken, and given up to plunder. During the remainder of this year the British in the Chesapeake were chiefly employed in threatening Washington and Baltimore. On the ocean the American frigate Chesapeake was captured by the British frigate Shannon, of somewhat superior force and equipment, and the sloop-of-war Argus was taken by the British ship Pelican, of superior force; but on the other hand, the British sloop of war Peacock was taken by the Hornet, and the Boxer was taken by the American brig Enterprise, of similar force. In the latter part of this year a formidable expedition was fitted out for an attempt on Montreal. The object was to be effected by the union of two divisions, one of which was to advance from Plattsburg under General Hampton, and the other to descend the St. Lawrence under General Wilkinson. The former made a short incursion into Canada, when, in consequence of a disagreement between the two generals, he returned within the boundary line. The expedition under Wilkinson, after proceeding a short distance down the river, and having encountered without much success, a body of the British, found the obstacles greater than they were anticipated, and abandoned the attempt. The army then went into winter-quarters. Early in the spring, General Wilkinson made another incursion into Canada, which ended unsuccessfully. He was

soon afterwards superseded in the cominand On the Niagara frontier events occurred which retrieved the character of the American arms. Great pains had been taken to improve the discipline of the troops, and prepare them to encounter veteran soldiers. The command was assigned to General Brown, who had distinguished himself at Sackett's Harbour. On the 2d of July the troops crossed, and having captured Fort Erie, with its garrison, proceeded to attack the British position at Chippewa. The respective forces were about equal in numbers. On the 5th of July a very obstinate and wellfought battle took place, which terminated in favour of the Americans, who carried all the British positions by the bayonet. Another still more warmly-contested battle occurred on the 25th of the same month. The British having been reinforced advanced towards the American position and were attacked by General Scott near the falls of Niagara. After a gallant resistance they were forced to retreat with great loss. The American force, however, was so much weakened, that it fell back to Fort Erie. The British advanced to lay siege to the fort, but their operations proved unsuccessful. An attemp to carry it by assault was defeated with great slaughter; and, in a sally upon the besiegers' lines, the Americans gained great advantages. The operations on this frontier during the remainder of the war were of minor consequence. On the northern frontier the arms of the republic obtained a naval triumph. The whole British squadron on Lake Champlair surrendered, after a warm contest, to an American squadron of inferior force. A powerful military expedition, commanded by Governor Prevost, was repulsed in an attack on Plattsburg, and compelled to abandon its views. During this year the British government availed itself of its naval force to invade the Atlantic frontier. In the month of August a body of about 4500 men was landed near Washington, and took possession of that place. After destroying most of the public buildings, they retired without molestation. The disgrace arising from this event was in some measure retrieved by the defeat of a similar attempt upon Baltimore, in which General Ross was killed. On the ocean the frigate President was captured by a squadron of the enemy, and the Essex by two vessels of superior force, after a most desperate engagement and great slaughter; but in the actions of the Epervier, the Avon, the Reindeer, the Cyane, the Levant, and the Penguin, the Americans were uniformly successful. The military operations of the war were closed by an attack upon New Orleans by a formidable and well-appointed British army, which was defeated by the Americans, under General Jackson. Peace, which had been for some time in negotiation, was concluded at Ghent on the 24th of December, 1814.

344. This treaty, which was ratified on the 17th of February, was silent with regard to the original subjects of the war, and stipulated only for the restoration of prisoners, &c. &c. the adjustment of boundaries, and an effort for the abolition of the slave-trade generally. Immediately after the ratification of peace with Eng

land, the government resolved to chastise the insolence of Algiers, which had taken advantage of the English war to prey on American commerce. A squadron was accordingly despatched under commodore Decatur, who, after capturing a frigate and a sloop of war, compelled the Dey o sign a treaty renouncing for ever the practice of holding American prisoners in slavery. In 1819 a treaty was concluded with Spain, by

which that power agreed to cede Florida to the United States. After many vexatious delays on the part of the Spanish crown, the treaty was finally ratified, and the American troops took possession of the territory in 1821. In 1822 the congress of the United States, by an almost unanimous vote in each house, recognised the independence of the late Spanish provinces in America.

345. The British possessions comprise the whole of the northern section of North America, except those tracts upon the western coast which are claimed by Russia, extending through eleven degrees of latitude, and containing more than 1,000,000 square miles: But so disadvantageous is the cliniate, and so thinly peopled are the inhabited provinces, that it is justly observed by Pinkerton, they sink into insignificance when compared with the great and flourishing territories of the United States and Mexico. This vast tract does not contain more than 800,000 inhabitants, while the bordering state of New York contains 1,300,000 on onetwentieth part of the surface; and Mexico has 6,000,000 on a territory of the same extent as the British possessions. Still, however, they are of great and increasing importance, and are rapidly filling with the population which is necessary to give them all the value which circumstances admit. The most striking feature in their geography, and that which renders them particularly valuable to Great Britain, is the gulf and river St. Lawrence, which forms at once a line of defence for their borders, and a channel of inland navigation of immense importance.

346. From the view that has been given of this stream, it will be perceived that the Gulf and River St. Lawrence is navigable with ships of the largest size to Quebec, nearly 700 miles from the sea. Merchant vessels ascend to Montreal, 170 miles above Quebec. Batteaux of large size ascend to Kingston, about 200 miles above Montreal. Lake Ontario is navigable with ships of large burden, 170 miles, to the mouth of the Niagara River; and that river is navigable eight miles to Queenstown. Here there is an over-land carriage of ten miles to Chippeway, from whence the river is navigable in large boats, twenty-two miles, to Fort Erie. A canal is about to be cut around the falls. Lake Erie is navigable with ships of large burden to Amherstburg, 250 miles; and the navigation is continued through Detroit River, twenty-five miles; through Lake St. Clair twenty-five; through St. Clair River, thirty-two; and through Lake Huron to the rapids of St. Mary, 250 miles. There is a portage by a canal of three miles at these rapids; and then Lake Superior is navigable to the grand portage leading to Lake Winnipeg, 300 miles, and to its west end, 150 miles more. The whole of this extended navigation is therefore 2315 miles; and

it is all navigable with ships, except 213 miles, of which only ten require the use of land carriage.

347. Besides the direct navigation to the head of Lake Superior, there are various minor branches, some of them of great extent and importance; and there are many portages to the head waters of the western rivers. The Utawas or Grand River connects Montreal, by an inland passage, with the upper lakes and with James's Bay; and from the last there is a continued chain of water communication to the Arctic Ocean. The grand portage connects Lake Superior with the Lake of the Woods, Lake Winnipeg, and the interior of the country to a great extent; and from the head of Lake Superior there is but a short portage to the river Mississippi and the western waters.

348. The chief of these possessions is Canada, now divided into two provinces, called Upper and Lower Canada, separated by the Uttawas river: the former is on the north of the great lakes; the lower division, on the river St. Lawrence. On the eastern coast, south of the river St. Lawrence, are Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and St. Johns. Labrador, and the regions around Hudson's Bay, sometimes called New Britain, are nominally subject to Great Britain also. All the British possessions are subject to a governorgeneral residing at Quebec. The greater part of this region is important only for the fur trade and fisheries.

349. The following table exhibits the latest estimate of the population of the British colonies in North America.