maintenance of a republic. When everyone is wise enough to see that honesty is not only the best but the only policy the perfect republic will be established.

In this respect France has, since 1870, pursued the wisest course possible, for French education, in all its branches, has long been taken under the special cognizance of the State. A minister of public instruction is one of the high dignitaries of the government. Education is free and compulsory, the public schools being entirely under the charge of laymen. The educational establishments are classed as primary, secondary and superior, with the university embracing the faculties of colleges all over France at its head.

Religion also is taken under the cognizance of the State, falling within the province of a special minister. All forms of religion are placed upon an equal footing by the State which deals impartially with all by paying salaries to their ministers, only concerning itself to know that the creed is not openly subversive of social order or morals.

Another official of the French whom we may envy them is a minister of fine arts. When may we have a department of fine and decorative art in our cabinet with a secretary of art at its head? Ever the cradle of the arts, France, since 1879, has maintained her ancient supremacy. To her the entire civilized world looks for design in all things elegant. What her studios and small shops produce in the way of exquisite individual creations the factories of Germany have imitated and brought out in large quantities and cheaper make for general consumption, after the élite have enjoyed the originals, as novelties of the latest fashion. She is the wizard of exquisite textiles, notably silks and laces, the great inspirer of new modes in gowns, millinery and jewelry. To her we look for taste in all things from cookery to fine art. Her vineyards produce the rarest wines, her literature the rarest wit, her artists are the world's masters in painting and sculpture.

In France, during this period, the pace was set by Paris for world's fairs, that of 1889 being the most gorgeous and exquisite event of the kind which the old earth had to that time ever witnessed, the inspiration for our own Columbian Exposition and of the various events of the kind which have since

been staged in our largest cities. The exposition of 1900 was likewise a success and the mark to be recorded in the annals of such displays.

This period witnessed also the passing of the Barbizon painters and the attainment of their greatest fame. It saw the rise and fall of the school of Bouguereau, the contest for recognition by the Impressionists and the development of the stupendous gifts of the sculptor Rodin.

In music it has given us Gounod, Saint Saens, Massanet, Du Bois, Alexander Guilmant, Charles Marie Widor, Cecile Chaminade, Vincent Dindy, Faure, Charpentier, Pierne and deBussy. In literature Hugo, Jules Verne, the younger Dumas, Zola, Daudet, Bourget, Loti, Rostand, Anatole France, Leconte de Lisle, Donnay and Bergson are names that shed lustre on the period. It has coyered the triumphant career of Madame Bernhardt, Coquelin, Rejane, Monnet and Fully on the stage, and of Patti, Jean and Edouard de Reske, Muratore and Dalmores in opera.

The years since 1870 have been a constant struggle for individual and national improvement, even the low birth rate which so alarmed scientists and statesmen merely betokening a higher state of civilization and an awakened family conscience which forbade the bringing into the world of children who could not be properly cared for and educated. This resulted in raising the standard of the French race mentally, physically and financially, thus enabling France to take that active place in world affairs to which she is so justly entitled.

CHAPTER VIII.

GERMAN UNITY.

The story of German unity, accomplished in the last half century, involves the story of the rise and progress of Prussia.

The word Prussia has been derived from Borussi, the name of a Lithuanian tribe that once inhabited a region along the Baltic, east of the Vistula, in the kingdom of Poland. In the thirteenth century Teutonic Knights conquered these uncivilized people, and in time the district became largely German. In 1611 Prussia, as it was now called, was united with Brandenburg. This union paved the way for future increase of territory, but the state was not yet important. Frederick William came to the direction of affairs in 1640 and gave particular attention to the establishment of an army. Later his son, Frederick III, wished to assume the title of King of Prussia. In order to gain the permission of the Emperor to this end he promised to aid the imperial cause in the war of Spanish Succession. By this agreement he remained Elector of Brandenburg and became King of Prussia.

Frederick William I, son of Prussia's first king, is remembered as a man of eccentric habits, possessed of a violent temper and a mania for tall soldiers. His country failing to supply a sufficient number of giants, he sent far and wide for them. Accumulating them at great pains and cost, he took care that they should not be exposed to danger. Judging from the writings of his daughter, one is led to believe that Frederick William I. was not always rational, and was at best brutal and erratic. Nevertheless he contributed a share in the upbuilding of a future power. A full treasury and a well disciplined army were left to his son, Frederick II, often called Frederick the Great.

Frederick the Great acted with a high hand in foreign affairs. His first affront was to plan with Russia for the dismemberment of Poland. When Charles VI. died, having

exacted solemn promises from the powers to respect the rights of his daughter, Maria Theresa, Frederick was the first to march an army into Silesia, regardless of his father's pledge. This was simple robbery, yet by the treaty that settled the war of Austrian Succession he was left in possession of this slice of Austrian land. By a second partition of Poland. Prussia gained control of the Vistula trade. By levying heavy toll upon it, a considerable revenue was raised.

Utterly unscrupulous in foreign relations, at home Frederick ruled according to another moral code. By a series of internal improvements he facilitated commerce and easy communication. Posing in the light of a poet, he gathered around his court men of gift and merit. Voltaire was long his ideal in the realm of literature, and he persuaded him to come to the Prussian court. However, as might have been expected, the friendship between the two was not lasting. Systematic plans, passed on from father to son, resulted in the rapid growth of the new kingdom, and when Frederick the Great died in 1786 Prussia had become the equal of Austria.

For generations there had been efforts made to make Austria the nucleus around which German unity might be built up. These efforts had uniformly failed. Now it was slowly becoming apparent that Prussia might also serve as a center around which the various states could bind themselves together. Austria was firmly Catholic; Prussia was Protestant. That fact alone was to prove significant in the unification of Germany.

Napoleon's victories during the period of foreign wars for personal aggrandizement brought deep humiliation to the German states. Austrian troops melted away before him. Twice the way opened for his soldiers to march to Vienna, and once troops were dispatched straight through the Emperor's city. The German armies were made up of conscript peasants officered by nobles who treated them with severity and scorn. Repeatedly the results experienced on battle fields demonstrated that armies of this sort were not effectual. A racial resentment was aroused when Teutons were found wanting in battles waged by a people largely Latin. A latent feeling of nationality asserted itself and found expression in sentiments of patriotism. In Prussia particularly was this true. Clear-sighted men saw that the

whole social body must be reconstructed if Germans were to prove their real worth. Among all classes this new realization was felt and measures were immediately undertaken toward its accomplishment. In 1807 Stein was appointed chief minister of home and foreign affairs. Knowing well that a strong nation cannot be molded out of serfs, he asked at once for their liberation. It is difficult today to understand how so recently two-thirds of Prussia's population could have been held in serfdom. While not mere slaves and chattels, they were not free men. Bound to the soil, they were not at liberty to direct the course of their lives, but were largely at the will of feudal masters. The Edict of Emancipation changed this at a stroke, and grateful men throughout the land were transformed from malcontents to loyal subjects. Class distinctions had been very binding. Nobles could not engage in trade or occupation without compromising their positions. Men could not pass from one social class to another. Stein caused all social privileges and distinctions to be swept away, to the permanent benefit of his country. Towns were allowed a part in local government, and above all, the army was reorganized throughout. Efficiency became the criterion for advancement. The lot of the common soldier was dignified and made responsible and creditable.

Responding with wonderful alacrity to social reform, Prussia became a new country. In the final resistance made by the concerted European powers against the great Napoleon, no country put forth braver efforts. It will be remembered that Prussia bore her share in the last battles and that her timely reinforcements won the day at Waterloo.

In the settlement made by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, when princes and kings apportioned lands and fixed boundaries according to their pleasure, Prussia was given territory that made her still more important. Furthermore, all the states of Germany were organized as a Confederation, the Austrian Emperor being made president of the league. The Confederation consisted of four kingdoms-Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Würtemberg-of several principalities, free cities, etc., to the number of thirty-nine states. Delegates from all thirty-nine were to form a Diet which should meet from time