land. Only Protestants could sit in Parliament and this at the start excluded four-fifths of the population. Laws were grossly in favor of the Protestants, the Catholics being harshly persecuted.

After twelve years, the English throne was again left vacant by the death of the queen and the crown passed to the House of Hanover,

CHAPTER VI.

FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE I. TO THE
PRESENT TIME.

George I. of Hanover was the grandson of Elizabeth, only daughter of James I. A German by birth and breeding, he could not understand a word of English nor did he know anything of the kingdom he was called to govern. As a result he was obliged to leave the administration of government to his ministers. With his accession the rule of prime minister and cabinet was substituted for the earlier rule of the king. Some small attempts were made by the surviving heirs of the House of Stuart to regain the English throne, but these came to nothing.

A serious financial crisis was brought about early in King George's reign by a trading company known as the South Sea Company. Having prospered, this company offered the English government 7,000,000 pounds for the privilege of handling the national debt, previously managed by the Bank of England. Failing to realize the danger of entrusting national finances to a band of traders, the offer was accepted. The South Sea Company intended to induce citizens holding government bonds to exchange them for stock in their company. Thus they would gain capital to promote tremendous trading projects. For a time all went well. Stocks and bonds rapidly increased in market value. People seeing the possibility of get rich quick" schemes, launched into all kinds of speculation. Stock-selling companies were formed for every conceivable purpose. One had a plan to make salt water fresh; another had discovered perpetual motion and would apply it to machinery; one even advertised to sell stock in an enterprise the secret of which would be revealed later. Gullable people went wild with excitement and invested their savings in the most reckless manner. When the more prudent, regaining their wits sooner than others, attempted to transfer shares in the South Sea Company, market values dropped as rapidly as

they had risen. Unable to stand the strain the company failed. The government took charge of the settlement of liabilities from property owned by the promoters, so that there was less loss in connection with the South Sea Company than had been expected. To be sure, the government never received the sum promised for the transfer of the national debt to the company's management. But the small speculating companies that had sprung up promiscuously caused heavy losses and led to the ruin of many worthy though misguided people.

The ministry that had permitted such havoc in the financial affairs of the government was dismissed in disgrace. Walpole, who was conceded to be an able financier, became prime minister. Throughout his leadership England held aloof from continental matters, for Walpole knew little of concerns outside his limited field. His cynical maxim that "every man has his price," was frequently proved during his ministry, for he and his co-workers bought what and whoever they wanted.

When in 1727 George II. succeeded his father, Walpole remained in power. In spite of his reluctance to enter into European relationships, the insults of Spain became too pronounced for even him to ignore. Great jealousy was felt by both Spain and France because England's colonial trade had continued to expand alarmingly since the last war with the Dutch. The East India Company had already gained a firm foothold in India and the progress of the North American colonists bid fair to infringe upon the settlements made by the French.

Europe soon became involved in the war of Austrian Succession, several ambitious states determined to cripple Austria because the crown in that country had passed to Maria Theresa, who, being a woman, was not expected to prove a vigorous enemy. England espoused the cause of Austria in order that she might strike a blow to France and Spain. George II. led an army to the scene of action and won the battle of Dettingen July 27, 1743. This was the last occasion in which an English sovereign ever exposed himself to the dangers of actual fighting. By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, England, France and Spain restored to each other territories won and the rivalry of colonies and trade was postponed for future settlement.

About this time the breaking up of a great Mongol Empire in India gave England and France opportunity to struggle for

territory there, but again neither side gained particular advantage. During the Seven Years' War, however, the French were driven from America.

In 1760 George II. was followed by his grandson, George III. From infancy he was taught that both his grandfather and great-grandfather had been dominated by the Whig party and he was constantly urged, when he should become king, to assert himself and be dominated by no one. He was an Englishman, born and bred, and his pride in his country won the hearts of his subjects. He set aside the political machinery of the Whigs and tried to win the Tories to his support. In an attempt to increase the revenues to correspond with expenditures now necessary in connection with the American Colonies, the famous Stamp Tax was authorized. The colonies had been growing so rapidly that it was not to be expected they would continue content while their government was administered solely for the benefit of the mother country. The oft-told story of how they rebelled against acts of trade and taxation without representation is already known. With characteristic obstinacy George held out, determined to force his rebellious colonists to yield. Taking advantage of his plight, France made war upon him at home. Unable to cope with the perplexing situation, the colonists forced him to acknowledge their independence. To his chagrin, George was obliged to do so and to recall the Whig ministry.

Hard upon these happenings came the French Revolution, which caused alarm in the minds of all monarchs in Europe. When the excesses of mob rule gave way to the one-man rule, Napoleon soon evolved his scheme of a world empire with himself emperor. A bold plan for invading England was part of Napoleon's scheme, or at least was threatened by him. While the administrators of the government were wondering how adequately to prepare to repulse such an attack, the number that came forward and volunteered to defend the island from wanton ruin exceeded all requirement. As a matter of fact Napoleon never reached this stage in his progress. By the splendid victory gained by Nelson's men over the French navy at Trafalgar, it. was decided that further aggressions of the French must be made by land. The whole daring undertaking, for the sole aggrandizement of one man, was defeated on the field of Water

loo and by the treaty of 1815, all boundaries were set back where they had been before the Napoleonic campaigns.

George IV., William IV. and Victoria followed each other successively and the great achievements of the first two and first part of the third reigns were social and political reforms. For years the industries of England had been making steady headway. Canals had been constructed from one center to another; the value of coal in the smelting of iron led to the rapid rise of manufacturing cities in the region of iron and coal deposits. Factories sprang into being, and, lost in the desire to attain wealth quickly, the health of England's laboring classes was entirely forgotten.

By the time of George the Fourth's accession, England was no longer an agricultural country. Manufacturing had replaced the earlier industry. Several mechanical inventions greatly facilitated the manufacture of raw materials and allowed England to develop such a lucrative trade that the heavy national debt, much increased by recent wars, could still be managed.

Hand labor was steadily replaced by machine labor and as a result large numbers of idle people formed into mobs and tried to destroy the machines that prevented any further opportunity for earning a living. The Poor Law, obtaining for many years, forced parishes to care for those who were unable to care for themselves. Money was given out to the needy, the larger the family, the larger the contribution. Factory owners took advantage of this to pay starvation wages, confident that the parishes would make up the deficit. This wretched system led soon to the existence of a large pauper class.

As England changed from an agricultural to a manufacturing kingdom, grain was no longer produced in sufficient quantities to meet the home demands. However, to protect the small farmer an income tax was levied on grain, bringing the price up to that which farmers felt obliged to ask for it. This was known as the Corn Law. It never did any good and worked some actual injury. At last it was repealed.

In 1832 the Reform Bill was passed with much difficulty. It increased the number of voters and eliminated the so-called "rotten boroughs." For years the representative districts had not been revised; certain boroughs had become deserted while new commercial centers had no existence so far as representa