of their gifts and should have the election of their Minister. Browne was induced by his noble relative to conform, and accepted a living in Northamptonshire. Others were more faithful to their principles. Henry Barrow, John Greenwood and John Penry were put to death for their opinions. Barrow and Greenwood had been fellow-students at Cambridge, and were afterwards fellow-prisoners under the primacy of Whitgift. They busied themselves in prison in writing tracts in exposition of their views; these were carried over to Holland, printed, and brought back and circulated in England. On May 24th, 1593, they were taken to Tyburn, 'tyed by the neck to a tree,' then reprieved, and finally, refusing to promise to go to church, were taken again to Tyburn and died the death of felons, their goods confiscated, and their families expelled the city. John Penry suffered death in the same way, May 29th. He sent a touching 'protestation' to the Treasurer Burghley:

I am a poor young man, born and bred in the mountains of Wales. I am the first, since the last springing up of the Gospel in this latter age, that laboured to have the blessed seed thereof sown in those barren mountains. I have often rejoiced before God (as He knoweth) that I had the favour to be born under Her Majesty for the promoting of this work....And being now to end my days, before I am come to one-half of my years in the likely course of nature, I leave the success of my labours unto such of my countrymen as the Lord will raise up after me, for the accomplishing of that work, which in the calling of my country unto the knowledge of Christ's blessed Gospel, I began...... Whatever I wrote on religion, the same I did simply for no other end than for the bringing of God's truth to light. I never did anything in the cause (Lord, Thou art witness), for contention, vain-glory, or to draw disciples after me.'

He wrote to his wife :

6th of the 4th month, of April, 1593. I am ready, pray for me, and desire the Church to pray for me, much and earnestly.

The Lord comfort thee, good Helen, and strengthen thee; be not dismayed, I know not how thou doest for outward things; but my God will provide. My love be with thee, now and ever, in Jesus Christ.' He advised his Church to flee to Amsterdam and 'take my poor and desolate widow, and my mess of fatherless and friendless orphans with you into exile.'

One prison with which these sufferers grew tolerably familiar was aptly called 'Little Ease:' so constructed as to render sleep almost impossible. The one in Chester gaol was 'seventeen inches from the back to the inside of the great door, at the shoulders eight inches, at the breast nine and a-half inches; from top to bottom one and a half yard, and boards to reduce the height to one yard.' (P. 424.)

We have many specimens of the amenities of religious controversy of those days. One tract is entitled, The Anabaptists Washt and Washt, and Shrunk in the Washing. Church-writer says:

A

They (Independents, Baptists, etc.) take the liberty to separate themselves from the clergie, and by mutual call of one another, to jugge themselves like partridges into small coreys which they call "bodies" or "churches," even before they have any Minister, whom they resolve to have of their own choosing and ordering, that they may be sure to have him after their humour...The better to set off their opinions and practices, their retreat is (as foxes when eagerly hunted) to earth themselves in this-the Spirit hath taught and dictated those things to them, or revealed the Scriptures to them in this manner.'

The title of another tract is :

'The Brownist Synagogue; or, A late discovery of their Conventicles, Assemblies, and Places of Meeting; when they Preach; and their Manner; with a relation of the Names, Places, and Doctrines of those who do commonly Preach; the chief of which are Green the felt maker, Marlin the buttonmaker, Spencer the coachman, Rodgers the glover...Let me, gentle reader, not be prolixious, and I

shall relate unto thee the names and places where these illiterate preachers make their assemblies; and the unlearned doctrines they hold. The first man that I begin with shall be an irreverend glover whose name is Richard Rodgers; he ofttimes doth call a congregation, and at his own house tells them what they shall do. The Spirit, he tells them, moves him, and so proceeding, he tells them what first comes into his mind; his apologie is that he speaks nothing but that which the Spirit gives him utterance for. John Bennet, he disalloweth of human learning, his reason is that some of Christ's Apostles were fishermen when He called them. Charles Thomas, a Welchman, doth teach in Warwick Lane once a fortnight....Alexander Smith, whose opinion is that no man ought to teach but as the Spirit moves, and for this one reason we may set ourselves against those scholars, as bishops, deans, and deacons, which strive to construe the Scripture according to the translation of the Hebrew, Greek and Latin; which last language stinkes (i. e., because of its association with Popery) like a piece of biefe a twelvemonth old, yet unsalted.'

He speaks of the sermon being an hour long; ' and then another stands up to make the text more plain.' We have also a metrical description of the preaching of Samuel How, the learned cobbler, at the Nag's Head, near to Coleman Street :

'A worthy brother gave the text, and then

The cobbler How his preachment strait began,

Extem'ry, without any meditation,
But only by the Spirit's revelation;
He went through stitch, now hither and
now thither,

And took great pains to draw both ends together;

For (like a man inspired from Amsterdam),

He scorned ne sutor ultra crepidam ; His text he clouted, and his sermon welted;

His audience with devotion nearly melted.'

Women-preachers are a favourite target: 'Here is start up an audacious virago (or feminine tub-preacher) who last Sunday held forth about two hours together, within our late

Queen's mass chapel at Somerset House, in the Strand, and has done so, there and elsewhere, divers Sabbath-days of late; who claps her Bible and thumps the pulpit cushion with almost as much confidence (I should have said impudence) as honest Hugh Peters himself.' Another tract is entitled, Tub Preachers Overturned, or Independency to be Abandoned and Abhorred. Lucifer's Lackey; or, The Devil's New Creation says: 'When women preach and cobblers pray, The fiends in hell make holiday.'

No doubt these lively attacks upon the Separatists were duly repaid. One writer, taking his stand on the General Confession in the PrayerBook, seriously argued that Ministers who acknowledged themselves to be 'miserable offenders,' and without health, were condemned out of their own mouth.

Holland became the asylum for religious refugees from England. In Amsterdam and the other Dutch cities were many English congregations. This gave rise to a busy commerce of opinion between the two countries, the chief gain of which was undoubtedly on the side of Holland. An English Churchman in 1642, complains that many places in England and London are too much Amsterdamnified. Many of the exiled Ministers were men of mark: Francis Johnson, Henry Ainsworth, John Robinson, William Brewster, John Smyth. Ainsworth was 'a man of a thousand.' As a Hebraist, he had no superior in his day. His commentaries are still held in estimation. Johnson was of superior intellect, an eminent Preacher and administrator. Mr. Barclay says: 'The influence which Ainsworth and Johnson's Church, and the Church at Leyden exerted upon the course of religious opinion in England was unquestionably large. The churches of Amsterdam and Leyden not only

calmly thought out, but carried out for themselves in exile, all that is comprehended in the principles of the Congregational or Independent Churches of our times.' Each congregation was a complete Church, electing its own officers and governing itself. Johnson was converted to Independent views by the tracts we saw Barrow and Greenwood writing in prison. A Church which had Johnson for Pastor and Ainsworth for Teacher, had a deaconess, an 'ancient widow,' who

'visited the sick and weak, especially women; and, as there was need, called out maids and young women to watch and do them other helps as their necessity did require; and if they were poor, she would gather relief for them of those that were able; or acquaint the deacons; and she was obeyed as a mother in Israel and an officer of Christ...She honoured her place, and was an ornament to the congregation; she usually sat in a convenient place in the congregation with a little birchen rod in her hand, and kept little children in great awe from disturbing the congregation.'

Differences arose: Bishop Hall says (of course, with some glee) that there was considerable discussion about the lace on Mrs. Francis Johnson's sleeve. She had been a merchant's wife, had a competent fortune, and wore such apparel as she had formerly been used to and suitable to her rank.' This gave great offence to some of the stricter souls, the chief complainers being her father-in-law and brother-in-law.

John Robinson's Church at Leyden furnished the Men of the Mayflower. Few uninspired utterances show greater breadth and elevation than his address to the intending emigrants :

The Lord has more truth yet to break forth out of His Holy Word. For my part, I cannot sufficiently bewail the condition of the Reformed Churches, who are come to a period in religion, and will go at present no further than the instruments of their reformation. The Lutherans

saw.

can't be drawn to go beyond what Luther Whatever part of His will our good God has revealed to Calvin, they will rather die than embrace it; and the Calvinists, you see, stick fast where they were left by that great man of God, who yet saw not all things. This is an evil much to be lamented; for though they were burning and shining lights in their times, yet they penetrated not into the whole counsel of God; but, were they living, light as that which they first received. I would be as willing to embrace further beseech you to remember it; 'tis an articlè of your Church-covenant; that you be ready to receive whatever truth shall be made known to you from the written Word of God.'

John Smyth, one of the ablest of the Separatists, through the influence of the Dutch Baptists became a Baptist. It was alleged that he baptized himself. The following is an account of the services in Smyth's church. Eight or nine hours of worship must have been a serious test of physical strength:

'We begin by a prayer; after, read one or two chapters of the Bible, give the sense thereof and confer on the same. That done, we lay aside our books; and, after a solemn prayer made by the first speaker, he propoundeth some text out of the Scripture and prophesieth out of the same by the space of one hour or threequarters of an hour. After him standeth up a second speaker, and prophesieth out of the same text. After him the third, the fourth, the fifth, or as many as the time will give leave. Then the first speaker concludeth with prayer, with an exhortation to contribution to the poor. This morning exercise beginneth at eight of the clock and continueth till twelve of the clock. The like courses and exercises are observed in the afternoon, from two of the clock until five or six of the clock. Last of all the execution of the government of the Church is handled.'

Mr. Barclay says that Smyth was 'the first enunciator in England of the great principles of complete and perfect religious freedom as opposed to a partial toleration.' Charged with inconstancy, he replied: "I profess I have changed, and shall be ready still to change for the better ; and if it be their glory to be peremp

tory and immutable in their articles of religion, they may enjoy that glory without my envy, though not without the grief of my heart for them.'

It is to this active intercourse with Holland that England owes both the Baptist Churches and the Society of Friends, whose principles and forms were borrowed direct from the Dutch Baptists, called Mennonites from their founder Menno, who died in 1559. It was in 1537 that Menno definitely separated from the fanatical Anabaptists, whose violence and excess brought such scandal on the Reformation, and founded a new body with aims purely religious. A few examples will serve to show the identity of their doctrines and practices with those of the Baptists and Friends. 'Menno held that no Christian could swear or carry arms or wage war or revenge himself in any way whatever, and that magistrates should be obeyed in all things not contrary to the Word of God. Since the office of a magistrate compelled men to use the sword, to take an oath, and other matters contrary to the duty of Christians, it was impossible for a Christian man rightly to fulfil it.' The Mennonites observed only adult baptism, administered on credible evidence of conversion. No appeal was allowed to courts of law, or marriage with the unregenerate. All mere ornaments in dress were disused. Ministers had no pecuniary support. Their meeting-houses were very plain, and had galleries or platforms for the Ministers. Silent prayer was a part of the service. At a burial any of the Preachers were free to speak or not. Instead of a spoken grace before meals, they made a long, solemn pause for silent thanksgiving.' The different congregations were independent, but a Yearly Meeting made general regulations. A sect of the Mennonites, called Collegianten, went

still farther, and held views very much like those of the Plymouth Brethren. But this sect died out, while the Mennonites proper still flourish and have sent out vigorous branches into America, France and Russia! A very interesting account of the Russian Mennonites is given in Mr. Wallace's Russia. They were originally induced to emigrate from Prussia to Russia in Catharine's time, on promise of their objection to bear arms being respected. Latterly there has been some indication of a disposition on the part of the Russian authorities to withdraw the exemption, and great numbers are leaving for America. The modern Mennonites have, however, somewhat modified the stringency of their opposition

to war.

About 1625 an interesting discussion took place between two Mennonite teachers, Nittert Obbes and Hans de Ries, as to the efficacy of outward means of grace, the former maintaining, the latter denying, their necessity. The position of the latter was that of George Fox. Obbes wrote a pamphlet, which was published, contrary to his wishes, by the editor, under the title A Spider Hunter, very fit to brush away from some Mennonite Barns the Cobwebs, the Silly Follies and Trifling Frivolities of Several Fanatics, Swenkfeldians, and their followers. In this he taught that the written Word of God, or the Gospel, wheresoever it is read or preached, is the ordinary medium or instrument whereby repentance, faith and regeneration are effected,' and that only by way of the Holy Scriptures God, Christ, or the Holy Ghost reveals and imparts to us everything which we ought to know, to do, to hope, to believe for our salvation.' Hans de Ries maintained the reality of the Divine inspiration, whereby the Lord Jesus instructs and inspires the faithful, i. e., through the Holy Ghost, from

Whom they have the anointing.' Revelations contrary to the written Word are to be rejected, but revelations, he maintains, in addition are still to be looked for. Nay, he says, these

compared with the dead and barren letter of Scripture are vivid, energetic and all-sufficient.' He distinguished between the written and the personal Word of God. The Word of the Father, the true Light, which has life in itself, and is an Inward Light to blind souls, which the letter or written light is not able to do, because it is not life; this is only to be found in Christ, the Word of the Father. This Word, called by Peter the Seed of regeneration, is no other than the Word described by Paul as "quick and power

fal

Here we have the very phrasesLight, Seed, Life, Word-which were in constant use by Fox and his helpers.

This spiritual teaching of De Ries, including much truth, is to be traced still further back, to Caspar Schwenkfeld, an interesting but little known character of the Reformation. By birth a Silesian nobleman, he embraced the Reformed doctrines, but came into personal controversy with Luther on the necessity of outward ordinances. He did not hold Baptism and the Lord's Supper to be necessary. His character was gentle, and there was much in his teaching that is unexceptionable. His views won many followers, and are still held by a small community in America, On three points Schwenkfeld and Fox were one: 'First, on what is called the doctrine of the Inward Light, Life, Word, Seed, etc. Secondly, on Immediate Revelation, that God and Christ in the person of the Holy Spirit, the Word of God, communicates with the human soul without the absolute necessity of any

outward means. Thirdly, that as a necessary consequence no merely bodily act, such as partaking of the Lord's Supper or baptism, can give the inward and spiritual reality and power of the Lord's body and blood.'

It is another illustration of the way in which indirect often exceeds direct influence, that Schwenkfeld's greatest work has been wrought through the Dutch Mennonites and English Friends. The disuse of Baptism and the Lord's Supper, characteristic of the followers of Schwenkfeld but not of the Mennonites, was revived by the Friends; much as hereditary peculiarities slumber through a generation and then reappear. Schwenkfeld lived a fugitive life, unrecognized by the ordinary Churches, often lodging in hedges, outhouses and caves, exposed to rain and tempest; but amid all preserving a meek, unruffled spirit. His favourite motto was 'Nil triste, Christo recepto.' He died in 1561, at the age of seventy

one.

In the Mennonites and their connections we find the fountain-head of the Society of Friends. There is abundant evidence to establish the historical association. The English Baptist Churches, who modified much that they borrowed, maintained close and active intercourse with Holland; and in York and Lincoln, at least, Mennonite Baptists were to be found. Fox and his Ministers paid several visits to Holland, where they were welcomed by the Mennonites, preached to them and held discussions with them. Many, too, of Fox's opinions and practices prevailed here and there among the different sects to which reference has been made. What

Fox did was to collect these and reduce them to some sort of system.

VOL. II. SIXTH SERIES.

H