from them, in all the lower private offices—in a constant sweetness of deportment in obscurity, and a constant resignation to the Supreme Mind-embracing cheerfully the lot appointed for us, repressing every envious notion and every repining thought against providence, resolving to go steadfastly on in the path pointed out to us by God and nature, till our mortal part fall down to that earth whence it sprung-must appear rather more noble and heroic to an All-seeing Eye, and to the judgment of every wise man, than the more glittering virtues of a prosperous fortune.

"When we despair of glory, and even of executing all the good we intend, it is a sublime exercise to the soul to persist in acting the rational and social part as it can; discharging its duty well, and committing the rest to God. Who can tell what greater good might be attainable if all good men exerted their powers even under great uncertainties, and great dangers of misrepresentation and obloquy ? Or how much worse should all matters proceed, if all good men desponded and grew remiss under such apprehensions? If virtue appears more glorious by surmounting external dangers and obstacles, is not its glory equally increased by surmounting these inward discouragements, and persisting without the aids of glory or applause, conquering even the ingratitude of those it serves, satisfied with the silent testimony of our hearts and the hope of divine approbation? Thus, the most heroic excellence, and its consequent happiness and enjoyment, may be attained under the worst circumstances of fortune; nor is any station of life excluded from the enjoyment of the supreme." 5

In the above passages there is evidence, not only of Christian sentiment and resignation to the Supreme Mind, but also of classic culture; the very spirit of the noble and heroic sages of ancient Greece and Rome breathes in them.

Hutcheson placed the object of moral approbation in general benevolence. The calm kind of affections are more approved than the passions; and the calm desire of private good, though not approved as virtue, is far from being condemned as vice; and none of the truly natural appetites and passions when restrained within proper limits are of themselves condemned as evil, although they are not referred by the agent to any public interest. But the disposition which is most excellent, and naturally attains the highest moral

approbation, "is the calm, stable, universal goodwill to all, or the most extensive benevolence. This seems the most distinct notion we can form of the moral excellence of the Deity." The love of moral excellence itself is a very high object of approbation, when by reflection we find it in ourselves or observe it in others.6

Although Hutcheson coincided with Shaftesbury touching disinterested affections, he is more distinct than his predecessor; and his theory of the moral faculty is better developed. In short, his ethical ideas were higher than Shaftesbury's, while his grasp of mind and analytic powers were also much greater.

Touching the relation of morality to religion, he stated that the highest exercise of the moral faculty and the highest happiness are found in the recognition and worship of God.

In the second book of his System of Moral Philosophy, Hutcheson treats at length on the subjects of natural rights, society, the foundation of private property, laws, and contracts; and the third book treats of government, embracing domestic and civil rights. But in these parts of his system, his conclusions are often founded on speculative and imaginary grounds. As an example of his method, his view of the establishment of government may be cited :-Civil power is most naturally founded by these three different acts of the whole people (1) an agreement or contract of each one with all the rest, that they will unite into one society or body, to be governed in all their common interests by one council; (2) a decree or designation made by the whole of the people, of the form or plan of power, and of the persons to be entrusted with it; (3) a mutual agreement or contract between the governors thus constituted and the people, the former obliging themselves to a faithful administration of the powers vested in them for the common interest, and the latter obliging themselves to obedience."

This is merely a statement of the famous Contract Theory of the Origin of Government, and substantially the same as enunciated by Hobbes, Locke, and others. Although Hutcheson's general views of government are more sober and liberal than Hobbes', yet both start from the same unhistorical and imaginary basis. He maintained the doctrine that all states have in themselves the causes of dissolution and death.8

7 Book III., chap. 5, sect. 2.

Book I., chap. 4, sects. 7, 10. "States themselves have within them the seeds of death and destruction; what in the temerity, imprudence, or superstition of the first contrivers; what

In conclusion, according to Hutcheson, the ethical standard is identical with the moral faculty. His general views obtained in the first instance a pretty wide circulation from his own teaching in the University of Glasgow, and his ethical writings have exercised a considerable influence since his death. His first course of lectures in Glasgow was delivered in 1730, and we shall find that both Hume and Adam Smith were somewhat indebted to Hutcheson. He agreed with his contemporary Butler in holding that the moral faculty is an essential part of human nature.

in the selfish ambition or other meaner passions of the governors and their subjects, jarring with each other and among themselves; what in the opposition of those seeming interests which such persons pursue; what in the weakness and inconstancy of human virtue; and in the proneness of men to luxury and present pleasure, without attention to the consequences. These seeds, along with external force and jarring national interests, have always occasioned the dissolution and death of every political body, and will occasion it as certainly as the internal weakness of the animal body and external causes will at last bring it to its final period. Good men indeed study, by all the art they are masters of, to ward off and delay these catastrophies as long as they can, from their friends or their country; such kind of offices are the most honourable and delightful employment they can have while they live. But he must little think of the order of nature who sees not that all our efforts will be defeated at last, whether for the preservation of individuals or of the political body."-Book III., chap. 11.

THE

CHAPTER XXXVI.

David Hume and Adam Smith.

SECTION I.

Hume.

HE two names at the head of this chapter have attained high distinction not only in Scottish philosophy, but also in the history of European thought, and especially in the literature of political economy. This is so fully recognised, that it would be superfluous to enlarge on it; but it may be said that Hume, by his bold and sceptical reasoning, aroused philosophers from their slumber, and greatly stimulated thought to further inquiries in various directions; while Smith advanced an attractive moral theory, and founded the science of political economy, which has proved beneficial in suggesting legislative reform and commercial enterprise.

Hume and Smith were mutual friends, and took a keen interest in each other's speculation and researches. In several branches their inquiries were identical, but in others they were as wide as the poles asunder.

Hume1 published in 1739 two volumes of a work entitled A Treatise of Human Nature: "Being an Attempt to introduce the Experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects." In explaining his system, it is requisite to direct special attention to this work, as it is the most systematic, elaborate, and complete of all his productions.

It consists of three books, which treat consecutively "Of the Understanding; Of the Passions; and Of Morals." The first book is divided into four parts. The first part of it, which consists of seven sections, treats of ideas and impressions-their origin, composition,

1 Born in 1711, and died in Edinburgh in 1776. Shortly before his death he wrote a short but characteristic account of himself, entitled My Own Life. Besides this there are various biographical accounts of Hume, but I need only mention that the late Dr. H. Burton produced one, entitled The Life and Correspondence of David Hume, published in 1848; and more recently Professor Huxley published an account of Hume and his philosophy.

connection, abstraction, and other relations. The second part, extending to six sections, discusses at length the ideas of space and time. The third, contains sixteen sections, which deal with the subjects of knowledge and probability. The fourth, extending to seven sections, discusses the sceptical and other systems of philosophy, and completes his exposition of the Understanding. The second book is divided into three parts:-The first part consists of twelve sections, and under the general heading "Of pride and humility," a pretty large division of the passions is treated; the second part, also consisting of twelve sections, treats of love and hatred; and the third part, containing ten sections, discusses the problem of the will, and the direct passions. The third book is, in like manner, divided into three parts:-The first part contains two sections, which treat of virtue and vice in general; the second part, extending to twelve sections, treats of justice and injustice, and various points connected with society and government; and the third part contains six sections, which treat of various virtues and vices.

Such is the plan of Hume's great philosophical work. Although it is characterised by a marked simplicity of arrangement, it presents some of the most subtle thought and searching reasoning to be found in any literature. Still it did not at once produce a great impression; for, in his own words, "never literary attempt was more unfortunate than my Treatise of Human Nature. It fell dead-born from the press without reaching such distinction, as even to excite a murmur among the Zealots." This caused him to recast portions of it in a more popular form, under the titles of "Essays: Moral and Political;" "Essays: Moral, Political, and Literary;" "An Inquiry concerning Human Understanding;" "An Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals;" and "Political Discourses." 2 But the

2 Hume's numerous short essays treat on a variety of subjects. Some of the more notable are those on eloquence, the standard of taste, and the highly polished ones on the Epicurean, the Stoic, the Platonist, and the Sceptic. In these and in others of his essays, he shows a fine critical faculty.

Regarding some of his other writings, it may be mentioned here that his Natural History of Religion was first published in 1757; his two essays, the one on Suicide, and the other of the Immortality of the Soul; his Dialogues concerning Natural Religion, and some other short pieces, were published after his death. Several editions of his essays were published in his lifetime; and new ones were frequently added, as well as many alterations and corrections made on them. Since his death various editions of his works have appeared. An edition of his philosophical works, edited by Mr. T. H. Green and Mr. T. H. Grose, with valuable introductions and notes, was published in 1874-5, in four large volumes.