the skin by which they are covered, and their sensitiveness to a more than usual supply of nerves. The colour of the lips is closely connected with that of the blood, and also depends upon the vigour of its circulation. When the blood is poor and deficient in red globules-see Anemia-the lips become pale; when, again, from failure of the heart's action, as in fainting, the blood is not circulated properly, the lips also become pale; when, from disease, the blood does not undergo its proper changes, the colour of the lips, instead of being red, inclines more or less to purple. The lips-particularly the lower-are apt to become the seat of cancer in old people; especially, it is said, in those who have smoked much from a short pipe. A continued sore, upon the lip that will not heal, in an old person, should be examined by a medical man; if it is such as to require removal, this cannot be done too soon. Refer to-Hare-lip-Lips sore. See Skin. LIQUORS.-See Alcohol-Stimulants, &c. LIQUORICE and LIQUORICE ROOT.Liquorice root, which is long and creeping, is procured from a plant belonging to the leguminous, or pod-bearing tribe, a native, chiefly, of Spain and of southern Europe, but cultivated in England. The extract of the root, known as hard "extract of liquorice," or "black sugar," or "Spanish juice," is used chiefly as a demulcent remedy in coughs and irritation of the throat, in irritation of the stomach and bowels, and of the urinary organs. Many persons take it largely, and find it useful, in heart-burn. It does not disorder the stomach, or cause thirst, like common sugar, even when used in considerable quantity. The extract is also employed to cover the taste of nauseous drugs, such as aloes, &c., and is added to demulcent drinks generally. It also forms the basis for various kinds of lozenge. A soft extract of liquorice is used by druggists in the composition of pills, and the powder of the root is used for the same purpose. smaller, or left lobe-2-the former occupying the right "hypochondrium," the latter extending far into the left. The gallbladder-fig. A, 3-is seen occupying the fore part of the under side of the right lobe of the liver, in which aspect it is represented in the cut. The liver is made up of numbers of minute lobules, about the size of a millet seed, which are composed of the smallest or "capillary" branches of the blood vessels, of the cells which seem to separate the bile from the blood, and of the ducts which convey the secreted bile into the larger common ducts; these converge to the one main duct of the liver, through which the bile flows, either into the gallbladder, or into the digestive canal, direct. The bile-see Bile-is formed from the blood which has circulated through the organs within the abdomen, and which passes through the liver on its way back to the heart; in this passage, the bile is sepa LITHARGE-is an oxide of lead, which occurs in the form of reddish white scales. It is sometimes used to adulterate wine.-rated from it, thereby purifying the blood, See Lead. LITHONTRIPTIC.-An old term applied to medicines which were supposed to possess the power of dissolving or disintegrating urinary calculi. Refer to Urine. LITHOTOMY.-The operation of cutting for the stone. LIVER.-The liver is the largest organ in the body, weighing, on the average, in and affording a secretion which performs an important part in the processes of digestion, and probably in the body at large. This intimate connexion, however, of the liver, by means of the blood, with the other organs within the abdomen, and particularly with the stomach, renders it extremely liable to be disordered; and, indeed, there are few cases of disorder of the stomach or bowels, in which the liver is not in some degree implicated, either primarily or secondarily. Probably, in no way is the connection between the stomach and liver more strongly manifested, than by the manner in which the latter is affected by the inordinate use of alcoholic liquors; in this case, the spirit being absorbed directly from the stomach by the veins, and conveyed directly to the liver, acts very powerfully upon it, particularly if the form in which the alcohol is taken be that of pure spirit, such as gin or brandy; in this case, if the use of the spirit be persevered in, a low form of inflammation is excited in the substance of the gland, which ends in the formation of what has got the name of the "gin-drinker's liver" —a disease, indeed, of which the only traceable cause is the excessive use of spirituous liquors, and which proves fatal to many in this kingdom annually. Its symptoms and treatment could not profitably be laid before unprofessional persons, but its cause should be impressed on all. In its advanced stages, it generally causes dropsical swelling of the lower extremities, and of the abdomen. Inflammation of the liver is attended by the usual feverish symptoms which accompany inflammation of internal organs generally, and must be managed on the same principles-see Inflammation-until proper advice can be obtained. The pain varies considerably in this affection, being usually very acute when the surface of the liver, with its covering membrane, is implicated, but less so, or of a duller character, when the substance of the gland is the part involved. As is the case in liver affections generally, pain is often felt somewhere about the shoulder blades, most frequently in the right, but sometimes in the left, or between them, extending even to the back of the head. Inflammation of the liver is much more frequent in warm climates than it is in this country; and in the former, is very apt to end in the formation of abscess. The disease, of course, requires the most active treatment of a medical man; but it should be known to those going to a hot climatesee Climate that this, like other liver diseases, is much more likely to attack the free-living than the temperate man. For further information respecting liver-disorder, the reader is referred to articles, Biliary Disorder Climate Gall-stone Jaundice, &c. LOBELIA, or "LOBELIA INFLATA," is a plant native to, and very commonly found, in North America. It was one of the medicines of the Indians. It has been used by medical men in England as a remedy in asthma, and, in some instances, proves of service; but this is generally the case when its emetic action has been exhibited. It is not a remedy, however, for unprofessional hands; for it may prove a powerful irritant poison. Lobelia has, within the last few years, acquired notoriety in consequence of its being the medicine of a set of quacks, in whose hands it has, in more than one instance, produced fatal effects, and been the means of subjecting them to legal proceedings and punishment. LOBSTER-like most shell-fish, is unfit for persons of weak digestion. Refer to-Fish. LOCHIA.-The "cleansings" after deli very. LOCK-JAW-is the popular name for the first and partial symptom of a fearful spasmodic disease, known to medical men as Tetanus, in which, not only the muscles of the jaws, but the muscles of the body throughout, are, more or less, extensively thrown into violent spasm, so strong indeed, that the teeth or bones may be broken by it. The set of muscles most generally affected, after those of the jaws, are those of the back; the patient, by the spasm, is bent like an arch, so that the back of the head and the heels alone touch the bed; occasionally the body is bent forward. The disease most frequently commences with a sensation of stiffness and soreness of the muscles of the neck and jaws; the latter become fixed, and the spasm extends more or less, over the body. It is needless to add, that this extensive cramp is attended with the most severe pain, which is also, in most cases, experienced severely about the pit of the stomach, being dependent, doubtless, on spasm of the diaphragm. The most usual exciting causes of lockjaw or tetanus, are wounds, especially of a punctured character, but in some persons, the very slightest injury is sufficient to develop the disease; in this climate, however, it is fortunately comparatively rare; in warm climates it is common; it is also liable to prevail among the wounded after battles, if exposed to much vicissitude of weather; indeed, cold will occasionally give rise to lock-jaw independent of injury. When lock-jaw arises from a wound, it shews itself in from four days to three weeks after the injury. It is a very fatal disease, the greater proportion of those affected by it dying; some, however, recover. Of course, as soon as practicable, a medical man should be called to a case exhibiting even the slightest tendency to lock-jaw after an injury; in the meantime, large, very large doses of opium in the liquid forms of laudanum, or of sedative solution, may be administered, even by unprofessional persons; they may mitigate the sufferings of this dreadful disease; commencing with from thirty to sixty drops of laudanum, the same doses, if they can possibly be swallowed, may be repeated at intervals of from half an hour to an hour, as long as the system remains unaffected by the drug: if the medicine cannot be given by the mouth, it must be by clyster. In addition to the above, the affusion with cold water may relieve. The patient having been taken out of bed, and a quantity of cold water dashed over the body, and down the spine, is im mediately to be rubbed dry and replaced in bed-quiet sleep may possibly follow. Whilst the jaws are firmly closed, nourish ment cannot, of course, be given in the usual way; a medical man will probably administer it by means of a tube passed into the stomach, either by the nose, or by mouth, passing it behind the teeth; until his arrival, should that be delayed, the administration of small clysters of meat broth will assist in maintaining strength. Refer to-Convulsion- Wounds, &c. LONGEVITY,-PROLONGED LIFE, it is well known popularly, is, in some respects, hereditary, the ages at which different members of a family usually die bearing a very near average to one another, even despite the influence of occupation, habits, and condition of life, although these, undoubtedly, exert considerable influence in determining the period at which the component tissues of one or more of the organs begin to give way. Many tables and calculations have been made at different times, with a view of determining the extent to which the duration of life is affected by the circumstances in which individuals may be placed. The following table from Casper of Berlin, if it may not exactly apply to this country, shews, at all events, how greatly the average duration of life may vary in different classes: - Of 100 theologians, there have attained Commercial and industrious men Subalterns Advocates Artists Teachers and professors Physicians · 42 40 - 35 35 32 Another table, by a different observer, exhibits the difference of locality, as follows: the observations were taken from a French department: LONGING-is the term applied to the almost morbid craving for certain articles of diet, with which some females indulge themselves during pregnancy; it is probably a phase of hysteria. Under the circumstances, it is only right and humane to yield to those fancies in some measure; but when there is any real or adequate reason for their being debarred, it may be insisted upon, without the risk of the consequences popularly supposed to follow. LOSS OF BLOOD.-See Hemorrhage. LOTIONS-are liquid applications, principally composed of water, used either to the skin or to the mucous surfaces, such as the inside of the mouth or of the nostrils. The variety of lotions from plain water— which is often a most excellent one-upwards, is very great. Lotions may be classed as-1. Cooling; 2. Stimulating; 3. Astringent; 4. Soothing; and, 5. Sedative. Of the first, water is an example, either alone, combined with spirit, from half an ounce to an ounce to the half-pint, or combined with vinegar. The lead lotion -see Lead-is another example of the cooling lotion, but in this case it is astringent at the same time. Water, with one-third or one-half spirit of wine, applied to the skin by means of lint, which is covered to prevent evaporation, is a good example of a stimulating lotion. Very cold water, the lotion of sulphate of zinc or of white vitriol, in the proportion of from one to ten grains to the ounce of water, and other astringents in solution -see Astringents-form the astringent lotions; the various preparations of opium; decoction of poppies; decoction of hemlock, &c., are soothing lotions: the prussic acid lotion a sedative one. The reader is referred to the various articles, such as Lead," "Zinc," &c. 66 LOW DIET-must necessarily be a comparative term, influenced by the previous habits of the patient, but generally it means the absence of all stimulants and animal food from the allowances-generally of eggs also-and a diminished amount of bread nourishment. Weak tea, bread, diluted milk, cocoa, gruel, arrow-root, sago, and such-like preparations, generally constitute the staple of low diet in this country; to these, however, the cooling fruits may frequently be added. Half diet includes the above with the addition of puddings of milk and eggs, of broth, and it may be of a small allowance of meat.-See Abstinence-Fasting-Hunger,,&c. LOZENGE,—a hard compound of sugar and gum, which contains either simple flavouring, or some medicinal agent. The system of giving medicine in the lozenge form, has fallen into comparative disuse; it is, however, in some cases, a useful and agreeable method, particularly in affections of the throat, such as relaxation, when it is desirable to apply the medicinal agent gradually. In children, the lozenge form of medicine is useful, either for the administration of ipecacuanha, domestically, or of morphia, under medical sanction. Such lozenges, however, ought to be carefully made so as to contain a certain definite dose -in the case of morphia the twenty-fourth of a grain-and the amount of the dose should be stamped upon the lozenge. The manufacture of lozenges is now almost entirely transferred from the apothecary to the confectioner. Lozenges are sometimes adulterated with what is called "mineral white," in other words, Plaster of Paris: it cannot be regarded as a harmless addition. Persons liable to attacks of lumbago, should wear a flannel belt round the loins. Refer to-Rheumatism. LUMBAR.- Belonging to the loins.The term is frequently used in connection with abscess. In children of weak and scrofulous constitution, abscess in the loins, or "lumbar abscess," is apt to occur, and is often connected with disease of the ver tebræ, or bones of the spine. Continued complaint of pain in the back, with any awkwardness in walking, particularly if accompanied with failure of the general health, should awaken suspicion, and give occasion for the child being examined by a surgeon. Lumbar abscess may occur in adults. LUMBRICUS.-A worm.-Applied to the large round worms which occur in the intestines.-See Worms. LUNACY.-See Insanity. LUNAR-CAUSTIC.-NITRATE OF SILVER.-See Silver. LUNCHEON.-A kind of intermediate meal, and therefore sometimes an unnecessary one. The English labourer has his "lunch" between breakfast and dinner, and again between the latter meal and supper; the English of the higher classes, particularly if their time is not well occupied, are apt to make luncheons a kind of dinner-a meal of animal food and stimulants, which, if superadded to dinner, is certainly unnecessary, and therefore productive of disorder. Either the luncheon should be made a bona fide dinner at an early hour, or it should be a meal without animal foodprovided, of course, that an additional amount of animal nutriment is not con remedial measure. Fruit is generally more wholesome at luncheon than in any other part of the day. LUMBAGO-is rheumatism of the large muscles of the back, and like rheumatic affections generally is often extremely painful, the pain being increased by stooping, and again when the person attempts to rise. This peculiar aggravation of the pain by these movements, is generally stated to be the distinction between this disease and painful affections of the kidney. In lumbago, nothing affords more, if so much relief, as hot moist applications to the back-sidered necessary by a medical man, as a see Heat-continued from twelve to twentyfour hours at a time, and followed by the soap liniment combined with one-sixth part of turpentine, rubbed well into the back and loins. Ten grains of Dover's powder, with a couple of grains of calomel, given at bed-time, and followed in the morning by a dose of castor oil or infusion of senna, will expedite the cure. Whilst the person is confined to bed under the influence of the hot applications to the back, it will be advisable to give warm diluent drinks tolerably freely. In a severe or obstinate case of lumbago, the "thermal hammer" of Dr. Corrigan--see fig., Counter-Irritation— might be used as directed; in such cases, however, the safest plan is to have medical attendance, if possible. Should the urine be scanty or high coloured, ten grains of carbonate of potassa, with a tea-spoonful of sweet nitre, may be taken in a wine-glassful of water twice a-day, with advantage. LUNGS. The organs of respiration. The lungs are two, each occupying its own side of the chest-fig. A, 1, 1-the left being rather the smallest, on account of the greater space taken up by the heart on the left side. The latter organ is situated in the space - fig. A, 4-between the two lungs which are separated from one another by a middle partition. Air passes into the lungs by means of the windpipe, or trachea fig. A, 2-to the top of which is fixed the larynx, or organ of voice; at its lower extremity, the trachea divides into two branches, or bronchi, of unequal length, one for each lung; these bronchi on entering the lung subdivide into branches, and these again into still smaller tubes, until after continued division and subdivision, they end in the air-cells. These air-cells are A ་་་4t part of the neck, and lying in front of the gullet.-See Neck. The larynx, or organ of voice, which is placed on the top of the windpipe, extends to the base of the tongue; its situation is often strongly marked in thin men, especially if somewhat advanced in life, when it forms the prominence popularly called "Adam's apple. This prominence is caused by a cartilage which forms a main portion of the body, or box, of the larynx. Into the composition of this wonderful instrument of articulate and vocal sound, various other cartilages, ligaments, muscles, &c., enter, and the whole is lined by a continuation of the mucous membrane of the mouth, which after passing through the larynx, lines the trachea, or windpipe, and follows the branchings of the bronchi. The cavity of the larynx is divided by a constriction of a triangular form-the glottis -and is protected from injury by a heartshaped cartilage the epiglottis - which, especially in the act of swallowing, when the larynx is drawn upwards, completely closes the opening.-See Throat. From the above slight sketch, the general reader may derive some idea of the important organs of respiration. To recapitulate; situated at the base of the tongue, and protected from injury by the cartilage of the epiglottis, is the larynx, constricted in the centre, and ending in the trachea, or windpipe, which, descending in front of the neck into the chest, divides into the right and left bronchi; these, entering their respective lungs, divide and subdivide, till the minute branches enter the air-cells, on the thin walls of which the blood circulates in a network of veins, and undergoes purification by absorption of the oxygen of the atmosphere, whilst it frees itself from carbonic acid and watery vapour. minute membranous cavities, on the membranous walls of which the blood circulates in a network of veins, in such a manner as to be brought into intimate contact with the air which is drawn into the lungs at each inspiration; nothing, indeed, intervening between the blood in the veins, and the air in the air-cells, but a membrane so thin that it allows the transpiration, of the gases and vapour, which, takes place as the blood becomes purified by means of this air contact. In consequence of their structure being adapted for the admission of air into numberless minute cells, the lungs feel spongy when pressed between the fingers. Those who are curious on the point, will learn more from five minutes' examination of the lungs and windpipe of a sheep or calf, in a butcher's shop, than from any description. In these, however, the mode of death, by bleeding, gives the lungs a much paler colour than their natural one. The tubes, the air-cells, the blood vessels, &c., of the lungs are held together by "cellular " tissue, and the entire organ is enveloped by a membranethe "pleura "-which covers its surface, and is thence "reflected" to cover the inner surface of the ribs of the chest; in this way forming a shut pouch, or sac, the inner surfaces of which are in contact, and these being in the healthy state perfectly smooth, and moistened with a lubricating fluid, they glide over each other in every motion of the chest. The trachea, and the bronchi at first, are composed of incomplete "rings" of cartilage, connected together by an elastic tissue; the former tube-the windpipe -as generally known, occupying the fore The act of respiration is partly involuntary- that is, goes on, as during sleep, independent of any exercise of the will; it is, however, as all know, capable of being, to a certain extent, controlled by the will; this being, doubtless, a necessary adjunct to the power of the utterance of sound. The process of respiration is essentially effected by means which enlarge the capacity of the chest: these means are the various muscles attached to the ribs, and which, by elevating them, increase the diameter of the chest from before backwards,-see Chest-and also the diaphragm and muscles of the abdomen, which, by their downward and outward motions, increase the capacity of the chest from below; the enlargement of the chest by these agencies, either in combined or separate action, has the effect |