Face of the Country, &c.] With the exception of the Hartz and other elevated tracts which occupy the southern part of the kingdom, the territory of Hanover consists of an immense plain interrupted only by gentle undulations and sand hills. In the south the vallies between the mountains are fertile; in the north there are many barren heaths and moors: the most productive tracts are those along the coasts and the banks of the rivers, which have been reclaimed from a marshy state. The principal productions are good horses and fine cattle, particularly in the Hartz and in the marshy districts on the coast. The Hartz mountains are very rich in minerals, particularly in iron, copper, lead and silver, the mines of which are extensively wrought and yield a considerable revenue to the government. The principal rivers are, 1. The Elbe, which forms the boundary on the N. E. 2. The Weser, which passes through the heart of the kingdom and receives from the east the Aller. 3. The Ems, which passes from south to north through the western part of the kingdom.

Chief Towns.] Hanover, the capital, is pleasantly situated on. both sides of the Leine, a navigable branch of the Aller. It has a few manufactures, but derives its support principally from the presence of the court and the residence of the gentry. The population is 25,000. Emden, situated on the Ems, at its influx into the North sea at the bay of Dollart, has a spacious and secure harbor, and is a place of considerable trade. Population 11,000, Hildesheim, on a branch of the Leine, 20 miles S. E. of Hanover, has 11,000 inhabitants. Luneburg on the Ilmenau, a branch of the Elbe, has a considerable trade in horses and salt, and 10,000 inhabitants. Osnabruck, or Osnaburg, on the Hase, a branch of the Ems, is famous for the manufacture of the coarse linen called Osnaburgs. Population 9,000. Gottingen, famous for its university, is on the Leine, near the southern extremity of the kingdom, Population 9,000.

Population and Religion.] The population in 1818 was 1,305,351. The prevailing religion is the Lutheran, but all other sects are tolerated. The Calvinists amount only to 40,000, the Jews to 8,000 or 9,000, and the Catholics do not exceed 150,000.

Education.] A regular system of education prevails throughout the kingdom. Elementary schools are established in every village, and academies or higher schools in all the principal towns. The university at Gottingen is esteemed one of the first in Europe. It was founded in 1734 by George II. and is on a very comprehensive plan, embracing the four faculties of divinity, philosophy, law and medicine. The number of professors is not fixed, but in general exceeds 40. In 1818 they were as follows: 3 of theology; 7 of medicine, surgery, chemistry and botany; 7 of law; 5 of the classics and oriental languages; 4 of history, ancient and modern, statistics and the history of literature; 2 of mathematics, logic and metaphysics; 4 of astronomy, experimental philosophy and mineralogy; 3 of modern languages and literature. These are the regular and daily lecturers, but there are also 7 professors who give extraordinary lectures on subjects

connected with the above. The number of students varies from 1,000 to 1.200, and is greater than at any other university in Germany. The library consists of about 200,000 volumes, and is perhaps more valuable than any other in Europe, an unusual proportion of the collection being modern and useful books. The regular funds for the purchase of books are about £800 sterling a year. Gottingen is the resort of students from various parts of Germany, from England, and of late even from America.

Government, Revenue, &c.] The government is a monarchy limited by a diet consisting of two chambers, one composed of the nobility and the higher order of the clergy, and the other of deputies from the cities, the university, and the landholders. No tax can be levied or new law made, without the consent of the states. The crown is hereditary, and the succession is limited to the male line. The king of Great Britain is also king of Hanover, but although the two countries have been governed for a century by the same soverign, they are still politically distinct. There have in fact been several instances of the same prince making peace with an enemy in the capacity of elector of Hanover, while the king of Great Britain continued at war; and in the convention of 26th of August 1815, for keeping up an army on the French frontier, the king of Great Britain bound himself, in due diplomatic form, to pay a subsidy to the king of Hanover. The king is represented in Hanover by a viceroy, who at present is the duke of Cambridge. The revenue amounts to £900,000; the public debt is small, not exceeding £1,500,000. The army contains about 20,000 men.

SAXONY.

Situation and Extent.] Saxony is bounded N. and N. E. by Prussia; S. E. and S. by Austria, W. by Reuss and Prussia. It lies between 50° 10′ and 51° 30′ N. lat. and between 12° and 15a E. lon. The area is estimated by Hassel at 7,436 square miles. Previous to 1814 the kingdom contained nearly twice as many square miles and twice as many inhabitants as it does at present, (exclusive of a part of Poland which was also subject to this crown) but at the Congress of Vienna the king was punished for his adherence to Bonaparte, by the loss of all his Polish territories, and one half of his hereditary dominions which are now incorporated with the Prussian states, and Saxony is reduced to the smallest kingdom in Europe.

Divisions. Saxony is divided into 5 circles.

Face of the Country, &c.] The Erzgebirge mountains run along the southern frontier separating the kingdom from Bohemia. The descent from these mountains, though steep on the side of Bohemia, is gentle and undulating on that of Saxony, and it is only in the northern half of the kingdom that it subsides into plains. The principal river is the Elbe, which passes through the kingdom from S. E. to N. W. The soil in the southern and mountainous parts of Saxony is well cultivated only in the vallies, but in the level districts of the north, particularly in the circles of Meissen and Leipsic, tillage is general. The products are wheat, barley, oats and other grain, also some tobacco and hops. Of the domestic animals, the chief care has been bestowed on the sheep, Merino rams having been imported about 50 years ago, and the Saxon wool rendered by continued good management, the best in Germany.. Few countries equal Saxony in mineral riches, the Erzgebirge mountains abounding in mines of iron, copper, lead, silver, cobalt, zinc and coal, all of which are extensively and skilfully wrought. Porcelain clay also is found in the neighborhood of Meissen.

Chief Towns.] Dresden, the capital of the kingdom, and one of the best built towns in Europe, is beautifully situated on both sides of the Elbe, at the influx of the Weisseritz. Many of the public buildings are in a fine style of architecture, and there is a magnificent stone bridge across the Elbe, which was accounted the finest in Germany until injured by the French in 1813. The city has long been distinguished for the cultivation of the fine arts; the patronage of the sovereigns, and the collection of the works of great masters, affording inducements for artists to reside here. It has manufactures of mirrors, tapestry, lace, jewellery, porcelain, earthenware, and plaited straw. Dresden has suffered repeatedly and severely from war, and the population has in consequence declined. In 1755 it was 63,000, in 1817 only 45,000.

Leipsic or Leipzig, on the Pleisse, a branch of the Saale, is celebrated for its university, its fairs, and the battles fought in its vicinity. It is the chief commercial city in the interior of Germany, its central position and other circumstances having giving it a decided advantage over other places. A great part of its business is transacted at the three great fairs, which take place at the new year, Easter and Michaelmas. These fairs are attended by an immense concourse of people, not only from every part of Germany, but from almost every country in Europe. The total value of the business transacted here in a year is computed at 18,000,000 of dollars, exclusive of the book trade, which forms a remarkable and a peculiar feature in the commerce of Leipsic. Here the booksellers of every large town in Germany assemble at the Easter fair to exchange their respective publications. The number of booksellers settled at Leipsic is between 50 and 60, and the number from other parts who attend the fair, varies from 200 to 300. The new publications exhibited for sale, are computed at an average of 5,000 distinct works. Leipsic and its neighborhood

have been repeatedly the scene of military conflicts. The most celebrated was that between the French and the allies on the 16th October 1813. The opposing armies were among the greatest of which we read in authenticated history: the allies were 240,000 strong, the French were 160,000. The latter were defeated with the loss of 40,000 or 50,000 men. The population of Leipsic is 33,000.

Freyberg, 20 miles S. W. of Dresden, is a celebrated mining town, and the residence of the officers who have the superintendance of all the mines throughout the kingdom. A mining academy was established here in 1765 which has been rendered famous by the names of Werner, Charpentier, Lampe and others. The whole of the neighboring district is full of mines; those in a state of activity amount to 250 and employ about 5,000 workmen. The population of the town is 9,000. Meissen, on the Elbe, 15 miles N. W. of Dresden, is celebrated for its porcelain manufacture. It has 6,000 inhabitants. Plauen, in the S. W. part of the kingdom, has extensive muslin manufactures, which extend to the towns in its vicinity. Population 6,000. Bautzen, on the Spree, 30 miles E. N. E. of Dresden, is celebrated for the bloody battle fought in its vicinity in June 1813, between the French and allies. It has 11,000 inhabitants.

Population, Religion and Education.] The population is 1,200,000, and the country is more thickly settled than any other state in Germany except Wirtemberg and Baden. The great majority of the inhabitants are of the Lutheran religion, but the reigning family are Catholics. The institutions for education are numerous and well conducted, it being a common remark that in no country except Scotland and some parts of Switzerland are the lower classes so generally taught to read and write. The Saxons have also cultivated literature and the elegant arts with more success than any other people in Germany, and in no country of equal extent is the number of printing and bookselling establishments so great. The university at Leipsic is one of the most frequented of the German universities, although it perhaps yields the palm to Gottingen in the reputation of its professors. The number of students varies from 900 to 1,200. The number of regular professors is 27, exclusive of extra professors, private. lecturers, and teachers of the living languages and fashionable exercises.

Government, &c.] Saxony is a kingdom, and the power of the sovereign is limited by the states, without whose consent no law can be made, and no tax imposed. The revenue amounts to £850,000, and the public debt is stated at £3,700,000. The army on the present peace establishment amounts to 12,000 men. Manufactures and Commerce.] Saxony is more distinguished for its manufactures than any other part of Europe, except England, the Netherlands and the north of France. The principal article is linen, which is manufactured in almost every village in the kingdom, but particularly in Upper Lusatia. Woollens are

likewise manufactured in a number of towns. Cotton spinning and weaving acquired a rapid extension towards the close of the last century, and have of late years been benefitted by the introduction of improved machinery. The manufactures connected with the mines are of considerable extent, particularly at Freyberg. The principal exports from Saxony besides manufactured articles are wool and minerals.

SMALLER GERMAN STATES.

I. THE GRAND DUTCHY OF BADEN. This country lies in the S. W. corner of Germany, along the Rhine, which separates it on the S. from Switzerland, and on the W. from France and the Bavarian circle of the Rhine; on the N. it is bounded by HesseDarmstadt and Bavaria, and on the E. by the kingdom of Wirtemberg. The surface is in some parts mountainous, but is made up principally of fertile and well-cultivated vallies which supply the inhabitants with all the necessaries of life, and furnish corn, wood and wine for exportation.

The population is 1,000,000, of whom 600,000 are Catholics, 300,000 Lutherans, and the remainder principally Calvinists. The government is monarchical; the title of the sovereign is Grand Duke, and since 1818 his power has been limited by the states, which are divided into two chambers.

Chief Towns.] Carlsruhe, the residence of the grand duke and his court, is a beautiful town, about 3 miles from the Rhine, in lat. 49° N. It is laid out on a regular plan with streets diverging from a centre in the form of radii. The houses are almost all of stone, and the population is 15,000. Manheim, situated at the confluence of the Neckar with the Rhine, is also regularly laid out, and is said to be the most beautiful town in Germany. It contains 18,000 inhabitants. Heidelberg, on the Neckar, 10 miles from its mouth, is celebrated for its university, which has 26 professors and between 500 and 600 students. Of late it has been liberally patronised by the government, and its reputation as a place of education is increasing. The population of the town is 10,000. There is another university at Freyburg with 300 students. Constance is situated on the lake of Constance, at the point where the Rhine flows from the upper into the lower lake. It has 4,500 inhabitants.

II. HESSE-DARMSTADT or the GRAND DUTCHY OF HESSE. This state consists of two distinct territories, detached from each other, one lying on the north and the other on the south side of the Maine. The northern division is bounded on the north, east and south by Hesse-Cassel, on the S. W. by the territory of the free eity of Frankfort, and on the west by Nassau and part of Prussia. The southern division lies along the Maine and on both sides of the Rhine, and is bounded N. by Nassau, the territory of Frankfort, and Hesse-Cassel; E. by Bavaria; S. by Baden; S. W. by