streams, the beds of the Po and the Adige are raised considerably above the level of the surrounding country, and the rivers are kept in by embankments. From a similar cause, the land at the mouth of the Po is continually encroaching on the sea. The ancient port of Adria, which gives name to the Adriatic Sea, is now 18 miles from the coast.

The Tiber rises in the Apennines, on the confines of Tuscany, passes by Perugia and Rome, and 14 miles below the latter city falls into the Mediterranean Sea. The quantity of earthy matter brought down by the Tiber gives it the tawny colour for which it was noted of old. Ostia, the ancient port of Rome, is now some miles from the coast. The Arno flows by Florence and Pisa.

CLIMATE.

The climate of Italy is various. The perpetual snows of the Alps have an influence upon the northern region, consisting of the basin of the Po; here the climate is generally serene and temperate, but the winters are sometimes severe. The second region, comprehending Tuscany and the Papal State, is not exposed to much cold in winter, but throughout the whole of its western coast, extending in some places 40 miles inland, a peculiar state of the atmosphere, denominated malaria, productive of the most malignant fevers, prevails during summer and autumn. In the southern region, the thermometer seldom sinks to the freezing point in the low grounds, and the excessive heat of summer renders the winter's snow of the Apennines, which is stored away in great abundance, an article of the greatest luxury. This region is usually about Easter visited by the Sirocco wind, which blows from the south; it is injurious to vegetation, and produces in man an extraordinary degree of lassitude and debility. The Apennines running through the whole of Italy, considerably lessen, in all the regions, the violence. of the heat in summer, and during the sultry season a breeze usually sets in from the sea in the morning, continuing till the afternoon.

PRODUCE, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCE.

The basin of the Po is peculiarly fertile, and grain is

raised in abundance: the middle region is devoted to pasturage; in the south the system of agriculture is excessively rude, but the soil is fertile, and the vine, the fig, and the olive tree flourish almost spontaneously; oranges are very abundant; mulberry trees are cultivated in such numbers as to render silk one of the staple productions of the country; rice is produced in small quantities, and the sugar cane and cotton plant flourish. Quarries of beautiful marble and other valuable minerals are found in the Apennines; the white marble of Carrara is in great request for statuary purposes. Manufactures and commerce are at a low ebb; the chief exports are raw and manufactured silks, olive oil, fruits, shumac, valonia, with rags, sulphur, &c. The imports are exceedingly numerous, and comprehend all sorts of articles, with the exception of those produced in Italy.

Next to Germany, Italy is the largest European importer of English goods. Articles to the amount of a million and a half pounds sterling have been sent direct to Italy in one year. They consist chiefly of cotton goods, refined sugar, woollens, iron, steel, and hardware, linens, fish, earthenware, &c. A large portion of the Italian silk brought to Britain does not come direct, but being sent by the Languedoc canal to Bordeaux is re-exported to Britain. Gallipoli, on the Gulf of Taranto, furnishes Britain with the largest supplies of olive oil.

POPULATION, MANNERS, AND RELIGION.

The population of Italy is estimated at twenty millions. The manners of the modern Italians are those of a degenerate and humiliated people; complimentary, artificial, wary, and distrustful, and little bound by moral principle, yet amiable and gentle in the common intercourse of society. They are famous for their skill in music.

The government varies in different states. Naples and Sicily are governed by a king. The middle part is under the dominion of the Pope; the northern is divided into a number of states. The religion is Roman Catholic.

ANCIENT NAME.

Italy was called Hesperia by the Greeks; it bore also

at different periods, the appellations of Saturnia, Ausonia, and Enotria: but about the time of Augustus the name Italia, which originally denoted the southern part of the peninsula only, superseded the rest.

Italy was divided by the Romans into three parts, Italia Gallica extending from the Alps to the Rubicon and Arno; Italia Propria, reaching to the south of Naples; the remaining part was called Magna Græcia, from the number and fame of its Greek colonies.

ITALIAN STATES.

Italy, which has twice reigned over the world, once as a political, and latterly as a spiritual lord, is now broken into several states. Besides the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, which forms part of the Austrian empire, it contains the kingdom of Sardinia, the duchies of Parma, Modena, and Lucca, the grand duchy of Tuscany, the State of the Church, the republic of San Marino, and the kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

I. THE KINGDOM OF SARDINIA.

The kingdom of Sardinia comprises the island of Sardinia, and the continental territories of Savoy, Piedmont, Nice, and Genoa in the north-west part of Italy.

The island of Sardinia is about 160 miles long and 90 broad, it is naturally fertile, and was considered one of the Roman granaries. The Carthaginians drew considerable produce from its silver mines,—these are now exhausted, but those of iron and lead are said to be valuable. The inhabitants are ignorant, and rude in dress and manners. The Waldenses, a noble army of martyrs, who in the darkest ages stood firmly by the truth, inhabited the valleys of Piedmont, near the source of the Po.

The principal towns in Sardinia are,—

Turin, the capital, on the r. Po, which is navigable here. Pop. 114,000. Gen'oa, on the Gulf of Genoa; it is a fine city, fortified on the land side with a double wall; its appearance from the sea is magnificent: its commerce is considerable. Pop. 80,000.

Cagliari, (pro. Calyaw'ree,) the capital of the Island of Sardinia.

The government is monarchical; the crown is hereditary, but females are incapable of succession. The French language is very generally spoken at Turin.

II. DUCHY OF PARMA.

The Duchy of Parma lies south of the Po, between Sardinia and Modena.

Its chief town is Parma. The famous Parmesan cheese was originally made in the surrounding country, it is now chiefly made in the rich pastures between Mil'an and the Po, in Lombardy.

III. DUCHY OF MODENA.

Modena is situated a little to the south of the river Po, having Parma on the west, and the Papal State on the east. It has a population of 403,000.

Its chief towns are the capital of the same name and Reggio.

The government is despotic.

IV. DUCHY OF LUCCA.

Lucca is on the Mediterranean coast, between Modena and Tuscany. In size it is considerably smaller than the English county of Hertford. It is said to be the most populous and best cultivated part of Italy. Pop. 170,000. Its towns are Lucca, the capital, and Viareggio, on the coast.

Most of the Italian image and plaster-cast makers, in other countries of Europe, are emigrants from Lucca.

The government is a limited monarchy.

V. GRAND DUCHY OF TUSCANY.

Tuscany has the Mediterranean on the west, and is nearly encircled by the State of the Church on its other sides. It possesses the isle of Elba.

Florence is the capital of Tuscany; it stands in a delightful valley intersected by the Arno. Its gallery contains many of the finest sculptures and paintings in existence. Dante, Petrarch, Galileo, M. Angelo, and Leo X., were born here. Pop. 98,000.

Leghorn, or Livorno, on the Mediterranean, has become the greatest

commercial city in Italy, owing to the freedom and security which foreigners have long enjoyed. Leghorn platting for straw hats is the finest in the world. Pop. 76,000.

Pisa, on the Arno, near its mouth; a university; is remarkable for its leaning tower, which overhangs its base 15 feet.

The government is an unrestricted monarchy, but the Grand Duke has long exercised his power with mildness.

VI. THE STATE OF THE CHURCH.

The State of the Church is bounded by the Adriatic on the E., the Mediterranean on the W., having Tuscany on the N., and the kingdom of the Sicilies on the S. The metropolis of the Papal State, and once of the civilized world, is Rome: it is on the Tiber, 14 miles from its mouth: the modern city is ill built: St. Peter's Church is the largest in the world: the Vatican, a palace of the Pope, is enriched with an immense library : the most perfect of the old Roman temples remaining is the Pantheon, originally dedicated to all the gods, now used as a church, and dedicated to all the saints: part of the Coliseum, or amphitheatre of Vespasian, remains; it held 80,000 persons. Pop. 160,000. Bologna, is the second town in the Papal dominions; an university. Ancona, is the principal sea-port.

The government of this State is nominally a theocracy, the Pope, as the vicar or vicegerent of God, being invested with absolute power. The Pope is elected by the college of cardinals from among their own number.

VII. SAN MARINO.

The republic of San Marino is about the smallest state in Europe; it is situated on the northern part of the dominions of the Pope. It contains an area of about 22 square miles, and a population of 7,000. It has maintained its independence for 13 centuries.

VIII. KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES.

The kingdom of the Two Sicilies, or Naples, consists of the southern portion of Italy and the island of Sicily. The volcanic mountains of Vesuvius and Etna are both in this kingdom.