sides of the intestines. It has a proboscis, and around this are two rows of hooks, which point backward, so that when the animal plunges its proboscis into the soft mucous coat it cannot be pulled away, and hence holds its position, notwithstanding the continued transmission of food and the constant motion of the alimentary canal by which it passes forward its contents. Besides these, four suckers are situated below the hooklets on the rounded head. An attenuated neck gradually enlarges as it proceeds downwards, and, at a little distance from the head, closely set and fine constrictions are observed, which become larger and more especially longer as we trace them downwards towards the tail-end. These constrictions become also more and more definite and deeper, dividing the animal into segments, which, being longer than wide and very flat, look like a series of oblong cards.

In each of these segments a complete set of reproductive organs, both male and female, are found, and each in course of time produces an immense brood of eggs. When this condition has been arrived at, the segment drops off and crawls about, making its escape from its host, and finally bursting from the increased growth of the contained eggs, it scatters an immense multitude of germs. At a first consideration, one would have thought that these germs, cast forth into the world, and dependent for development upon their admission to other hosts, would have but little chance of complete life; and this is no doubt true with regard to each single germ. In this case, however, Nature makes up by multitude for efficiency. If we consider that each tapeworm has many hundred segments or joints when found in the interior of man, and that these joints are continually renewed from above as they fall away, and that each segment contains thousands of ova which are cast into various situations-into garbage, water, etc.-it is not wonderful that some are taken into the interior of some suitable animal.

These animals, being constantly provided with digested food which has been elaborated by their hosts, do not need any food canal of their own to digest aliment, but absorb it when already dissolved through the walls of the body. In fact, their stomachs, so to speak, are external, and correspond to the skin of other animals. Running along each side of the animal is a narrow duct. Cross-branches unite the two ducts, one to each segment, and run across at the part farthest from the head. These two lateral canals were long considered as the alimentary system of the animal; but it was found that it had no opening forwardthat is, it was without a mouth—and although there is an opening at the other end of the body, yet it is now considered to be the atrial system corresponding to the water-vascular or ambulacral system which we have described in the Echinodermata.

The egg with its contained embryo being swallowed by some animal, the latter does not remain in the food canal and become developed into a tapeworm, as might have been supposed, but immediately that the coatings of the egg are dissolved away, the embryo, which is armed with six boring-hooks, makes its way through the walls of the alimentary canal, and traverses the body in any direction until it reaches some structure suited to it, and there it rests and becomes more fully developed. The development is commenced by the formation of a bladder which is proper to the animal, while the soft organ in which the parasite is lodged forms a self-defensive cyst around this of common (areolar) tissue. Thus the creature is snugly ensconced in a cavity, through the walls of which the liquids penetrate, and are absorbed by the bladder-like animal. By the aid of this nutriment fresh changes occur with the growth of the larva. Thus on one side of the interior of the bladder a round body grows and so projects into the cavity, and in this the head and neck of the future perfect worm are formed. On this head the circles of hooks and the suckers are developed, so that the examination of the larval form when at an advanced stage will enable the examiner to determine to which species the creature belongs. When this process is completed, the larva has reached a stage beyond which it cannot become more developed unless it changes its position, and this change of position is not an active but a passive one. Hence multitudes of these creatures probably die and become disintegrated without ever attaining the perfect form. Those, however, whose life-circuit becomes complete, are transferred to the stomach of a carnivorous animal by the flesh in which they are lodged being devoured. Thus the animal has two different hosts, one of which entertains it in the immature condition, and the other when it becomes perfect and sexually

capable of reproducing its species. Most of these cystoid animals, when in the cystoid or bladder-like state, inhabit the soft structure of herbivorous or grain-feeding animals, while when they arrive at the cestoid or tape-worm condition they are found in the carnivorous animals which feed upon their former hosts. It has been shown that the Cysticercus fasciolaris of the liver of a mouse becomes the Tania crassicollis (the thick-necked tapeworm) of the intestines of the cat, and the Cysticercus pisi formis (the pea-shaped bladder-tail) of the rabbit becomes the Tania serrata (notched tapeworm) of the dog. In the case of the species we have been describing, the host of the larva is usually the pig, and the host of the adult worm is man. As might be expected, it is found that the Tania solium infects those most who are especially fond of ill-cooked sausages. In Germany this unfortunate taste for nearly raw pork has produced the most harmful results, not only by introducing this worm, but also another called Trichina spiralis, a worm of much higher organism, and belonging to an order to be referred to hereafter. When the flesh containing the encysted entozoa is being digested by the animal who has been unfortunate enough to swallow it, the digesting operation goes on not only so far as to liberate the creature, but also to dissolve away the bladder which encloses the head. Then the creature, like the liberated genius in the "Arabian Nights," begins to take revenge on its liberator for its long imprisonment. It fixes itself by its hooks and its suckers to the walls of the intestines, and its tail grows and becomes segmented as before described. As compared to the immense length and size of the chain of segments, the head is ridiculously small; and thus the simile of the genius, who, when liberated from his bottle, assumed such vast and formidable dimensions, is not inappropriate to the rapid development which follows the liberation of this worm from its cyst.

The effect upon the human system occasioned by a tapeworm is extremely distressing. The patient suffers not only from loss of appetite, emaciation, and lassitude, but the sympathetic nervous system is affected so as to produce convulsions and epilepsy. Distressing, however, as these effects are, they are not so fatal as are those produced by the presence of the immature form, because the adult worm is confined to the intestines, and is thus, so to speak, in a situation external to the body, while the larvae, as we have seen, penetrates into all parts of the body, and their presence is more or less injurious as they take up their abode in the more or less vital organs. If they find their way to a position under the skin or in the muscles, they are comparatively harmless; but if they penetrate the eye or the brain, they occasion pain and sometimes death.

In tracing the circle of life of the Tania, we find it runs through all the forms named, in the following order :1. The egg.

2. The embryo, actively travelling by a six-hooked boring apparatus.

3. The resting larva, consisting of a head enveloped in a terminal bladder.

4. Immature tapeworm liberated from its bladder. 5. Segmented and sexually mature tapeworm.

6. Free segment, called a proglottis, from its likeness to the tip of the tongue.

This creature belongs to the sub-class Anenterelmintha, which is distinguished from the sub-classes to which the other animals of the class belong, by having no alimentary canal of any kind. This animal, in common with all belonging to this sub-class, is entirely nourished by absorption, and for this reason we have taken the tapeworm as the type of an entozoon.

The animals of the sub-class Sterelmintha differ from these in having an alimentary canal channelled out in the substance of an otherwise solid body. Our best English writer on the Entero, Cobbold (whose books should be read by those who wish for a more intimate acquaintance with the class), takes the Distoma conjunctum, which he found in the intestines of the American red fox, as a type of the sub-class. The animal belonging to this sub-class, with which we are unfortunately best acquainted, is the liver-fluke, which occasions the disease called the rot in sheep. This creature is found abundantly in the liver of sheep so affected. Sometimes as many as a thousand have been found in a single liver. The animal is of considerable size, measuring from to 1 inch in length, and about inch in breadth. It is flat, and shaped like a little sole. Its anterior extremity is extended into a nipple-shaped projection, at the end of which is the

sucker, which is perforated by the mouth of the animal. Another sucker of larger size is situated on the under side of the body, at about a quarter of an inch from the mouth. This is similarly constructed, but is imperforate, and does not communicate with any internal organ. Locomotion, so far as it is needed to this animal, is effected by these suckers, which can be alternately attached, and also by the general flexibility of the body, which has a muscular layer beneath the epidermis. The mouth leads down into a short gullet, below which the alimentary canal divides into two main trunks, which run down to the tail-end of the animal, giving off blind branches in a way best explained by the engraving. There is no anus, and this perhaps is not needed, on account of the highly organised food which the animal ingests. The fluke, however, readily ejects the food from its branched stomach, by curling itself up like a little strip of heated parchment, and thus squeezing it out. Another system of vessels has a single opening towards the tail of the body, and runs forward, giving off branches on either side, and then, when it has arrived at a distance of about one-third of the length of the animal from the oral sucker, it splits into three branches. This system correspon. 3 with the water-vascular system of the Tania.

This animal is hermaphrodite, that is, it has both male and female organs. The development of these creatures is peculiar. It is supposed that when the animal containing matured eggs is voided from the sheep, it reaches some moist place or pool of water, and deposits its eggs, which emit a larva which swims about by cilia, and has a single X-shaped eye. This larva fixes on some fresh-water snail and penetrates its skin, and when it has arrived at the interior, is transformed into a large bag or nurse, containing in its interior many tadpole-shaped animals with long tails, called cercaria. The cercaria once more escape, not only from their foster-parent or nurse, but also from their molluscous host, into the surrounding water, and it is probable that they are imbibed with the water by sheep, and then penetrate to the liver, causing the rot. In accordance with these suppositions, some of which have been observed not in the liverfluke, but in nearly allied species, it is found that sheep fed on dry land or on the great salt-water marshes are comparatively free from rot, while those fed up in fresh-water marshes are peculiarly subject to it. The disease associated with these creatures is of considerable economic importance, as in some years it has been reckoned that between one and two millions of sheep have died of the rot in Britain alone.

Besides the flukes there is another sub-class of Helminthozoa, called Cælelmintha, or hollow-bodied worms. These have alimentary canals of the same type as the higher animals, being tubes within tubes. The alimentary canal consists of a strong esophagus, a dilatation or bulb containing a comminuting apparatus, or gizzard, and then a stomach continued into an intestine. These creatures are not hermaphrodite, but the individuals are male and female. Some of these animals are not parasitic at all, and some of them only under certain circumstances. Thus, there is found in the tropical regions of Asia and Africa an intolerable pest, called the Dracunculus Medinensis. This troublesome parasite is always the female, and it gains access to the body from water through the skin, and then grows and emits its brood, to the great annoyance of its host, often occasioning death. When it reaches its full size it is many feet in length, though only of an inch in thickness. It will migrate beneath the skin from one part of the body to another. Some have supposed that these animals were the fiery serpents which attacked the Israelites in the wilderness. The only remedy seems to be to cut down to the worm, and having got hold of one end this is wound round a piece of stick. When thus secured the stick is left for a day or two, and then more of the worm's body is drawn out, and a further winding takes place, and so on until the whole is extracted entire. be broken, as it swarms with eggs, all the bad effects take place which would necessarily ensue if the creature were left unmolested.

If the worm

The class Helminthozoa show, by their development within ciliated larval forms of utterly different form from the adult animal, by the possession of a water-vascular system, and a radial structure of their head-organs, an affinity for the Echinodermata. On the other hand, their elongated and transversely striated or segmented forms, as well as the position of the scanty representatives of the nervous system, show an approach

LESSONS IN MUSIC.-XI.

WHILE our pupils are advancing in their own practical study of the three principal notes of the scale, in connection with the tunes given in this and the following lesson, we shall usefully occupy our time in reviewing and making the more sure some of the steps already taken. One of the chief anxieties of the art of teaching is that of ascertaining where lie the real difficulties of our pupils. This we are enabled to do by means of the correspondence with which we have been favoured. Most of the mistakes of our pupils have arisen from careless reading or from a forgetfulness of the pledge to which at first we sought to bind them. This was the pledge: "We have only two things to ask of you: the first, that you will be content to learn one thing at a time, instead of being impatient for knowledge not at the moment helpful-perhaps, just then, only confusing to you; the second, that when something is set before you to be done, you will really do it, instead of supposing it to be done, and going on; for only by doing we truly understand." But without judging our friends too nicely, we will try to meet their difficulties. Those difficulties relate to the "modulator," the "pattern," and "the movable DOH."

"What I want," says one of our correspondents, "is to be able to measure to the eye the exact interval the voice is taking." It is just for this purpose that the modulator is provided. The ordinary staff of five lines and four spaces does not measure to the eye the exact interval the voice is taking, because it fails to show pictorially the places of the "semitones" (small steps) of the scale. This is, however, a point of vital importance to the learner, and one which should be kept constantly before his eyes. Hence the necessity of some such scale as the modulator

66

offers. The modulator also possesses the advantage of showing not only lines or marks for the notes, but the names of the notes themselves. Our pupils have to use only the middle column at present. In order thus to measure to the eye the interval the voice is taking, our pupil must not be constantly looking from the book to the modulator and from the modulator to the book. He must first learn a few notes of his tune "by heart," and then sing them from the modulator alone; and so on till he can point the whole tune from memory, and without the book. Thus, if he is learning Exercise 5, let him just read and repeat to himself "DOH, SOH, ME, DOH," several times over. Then let him, laying aside his book, turn to the modulator, and sing these notes while he points to them. Next let him learn to "point and sing," without book, the phrase ME, ME, DOH "in the same manner, and after that the whole exercise. Very extensive experience in teaching has made us feel increasingly the importance of requiring the pupils thus to "see," and themselves point out the intervals they sing on a perfect scale like the modulator. It is only by this painstaking that a real knowledge of interval is gained. If the pupil will begin at the beginning and faithfully pursue this plan, we can promise him that long before he has reached the present lesson he will have attained such a facility in "pointing from memory on the modulator a8 will make the exercise quite a delightful one to him. "Oh," said a little girl to her mamma, as they were travelling in a railway train, and a stranger opened a number of the POPULAR EDUCATOR, "Oh, mamma, there's a modulator!" "What do you know of a modulator?" said the stranger. 66 Oh! I know something," was the answer, and the happy child soon convinced the stranger that she "knew something" by singing and "pointing as she sang several of the tunes she had learnt at school Upwards of seven thousand pupils in the United Kin during the past year (1867) took "certificates of prof

implying the ability to sing plain music at first sight, and every one of them was required to bring proofs to the examiners of his ability to sing and point on this scale from memory a number of tunes. Let not our pupils of the POPULAR EDUCATOR be behind the others in this vital exercise of self-discipline. Many of our correspondents want to know "whether they can learn the Music Lessons without the aid of a friend to set the pattern." A large number of our pupils are, no doubt, like one of them who says, "I have naturally a good ear for music, and am able to sing almost any song after hearing it two or three times." By such persons, very little patterning will be needed. Let them only learn, from a friend, how to strike the chord (DOH, ME, SOH) to any sound that may be given, and the rest will easily follow. We ourselves were exactly in their position, and did thus "make out" tunes, and teach ourselves to sing plain tunes at sight-constantly using the modulator, and pointing as we sang, and often having to run up or down from one note to another, in order to know how to strike an interval. We had nothing but a c1 tuning-fork, by means of which we found out the key-note. Everything depends on the faithfulness with which you master the exercises of the first three lessons. But to many persons, doubtless, who have no friend to set the pattern, some simple instrument will be

acuteness or gravity (highness or lowness) of the sound in each glass depends on the fineness of the substance of the glass, the thickness of the plate, and its length; but is not affected by its breadth. The plates of glass should be fastened to the tape by strong cement (bored and tied would be better), at the distance of one quarter of their length from each end. This we mention for the sake of any artisans who may wish to make one. The cheapest of these instruments-which may be bought for ninepence or one shilling-contains eight glasses, which are tuned to the single octave in the key of c. These glasses are marked C D E F GABC'. Our pupils should paste little letters on them with the initials of the sol-fa syllables, DOH, RAY, ME, FAH, SOH, LAH, TE, DOH'. Then he will only have to strike with his hammer the glasses that are marked with the syllables named in his exercise, and he would hear his wished-for "pattern." With this instrument, he can play all the exercises which do not run beyond the range of a single octave. Of course he

DOH

RAY

ME

necessary. If you are already acquainted with an instrument, whatever it is, use that. Only let us warn you not to sing with your instrument that is, to use it as a "pattern," not as a "leader❞—to make yourself independent of the pattern as soon as possible, often endeavouring to do without it, and to trust more and more to your own perception of the mental effect of notes, as developed in our lessons; for instruments may be out of tune, and some of them-the piano and organ for instanceare systematically (to however small an extent) imperfect in tune. The flatness of the fifths on the piano, for instance, are very obvious. The fifth note in the scale (SOH) should be brilliant and trumpet-like in its effect. The pupil's knowledge may thus correct the slight inaccuracies of his instrument. We have been at some pains to make inquiries with a view of recommending some cheap instrument to our pupils with which they may set the pattern. We shall in this article describe two of the most accessible the glass-harmonicon" and "the

German concertina."

The glass-harmonicon is a well-known and cheap instrument, in which the sounds are produced by striking with a mmer on small plates of glass. These are of different are placed in a row, fastened to two slightlytapes, as in the illustration given above. The

such an instrument, and can sing it perfectly without the instru ment, exercise himself in striking the sound G, and raising a chord (DOH, ME, SOH) upon that, without a pattern. Next, let him raise a chord on the sound D, next on the sound A, next on E, and next on B, in the same manner as before. After this let him try to sing, not only the chord, but the whole scales of G, D, A, and E. Many will be able to do this; and they, when they have learnt their tune by pattern in the key of c, will easily manage to pitch the proper key-note, raise the chord upon it, and afterwards sing the tune itself in the key for which it was written. We should, however, recommend our pupils to purchase the glass-harmo nicon with two octaves. Let them mark it with the syllables, and use it in the same way as that with one octave. For a slight additional expense, any maker of these instruments would construct one for you tuned in the key of G, or in any other key you may desire. In that case, you must paste your DOH upon the glass marked a, RAY upon that marked A, and so on. With these two instruments you would be able to play most of the tunes very fairly. You would still lack the so-called "accidentals,” not yet explained in our lessons.

The German concertina consists of two hand-boards with bellows between. The metallic tongues by which the sound is produced, and the machinery by which the little pegs, when

NAN. — XXXI.

IDIOMS (continued). As translated by "than," as: cak is higher than the beech. word, als is made to refer to - as:-Gr bettelt lieber, als daß 4. work (literally, sooner or more * fein, nichts, etc., is best translated the succeeding word may stand in mant, als du, kann ihn überwinden, no one, The same is also true of interroa the like negatives are implied in the sat er sonst, als einen leeren Titel what has he le? In other positions, als often answers Sch erkenne keinen Menschen als meinen Herrn, human being as my master. Ich betrachte ihn 1 rogard him as a friend. Er verlangt es als ein ads it as a right. Gr sicht aus, als ob er krank wäre, Als er dieses Zeichen sah, fiel er zu vvar as though he were sick. when) he saw this sign, he fell to the ground. often signifies "as," as:-Es ist heute wie gestern, it day as yesterday. Er hantelt wie ein rechtschaffner Mann mus, he acts as an upright man must act. Wie answers to our word "like," as :-Gs glänzt wie Gold, it glitters like Gr beträgt sich wie ein Wahnsinniger, he behaves himself like Socrates blühte als Jüngling wie eine Rose, lehrte ale Wann wie ein Engel, und starb als Greis wie ein Verbrecher, Socrates bloomed as youth (young man) like a rose (as a rose blooms), taught as man like an angel (as an angel teaches), and died as old man like a criminal (as a criminal dies).

Nur in der Stunde des Ab'schiedes

weiß man, welch einen großen Schatz der Liebe unser Busen hegt.

Obschon' die Jagd nur ein an'stren.

gendes und barba'risches Vergnü'. gen ist, so wird sie dennoch oft bei Manchem zur Lei'denschaft. Von Weitem sieht eine Landschaft schöner aus, als in der Nähe.

great earthquake. Although the storm has abated, the billows, notwithstanding, (still) run very high. Among the citizens themselves one sees nothing but pallid countenances.

Only in the hour of separation

EXERCISE 114.

1. Ein geistiger Genuß ist dauernder als ein sinnlicher. 2. Der Habs süchtige erlangt nie so viel, als er haben will. 3. Je höher man in vie obern Regionen gelangt, desto kälter wird es. 4. Je mehr ihn die eine 5. Je höher Napoleon Partei haßte, desto mehr liebte ihn die andere. 6. Der nahe Fluß gewährt den benach, stieg, testo ehrgeiziger wurde er. barten Bewohnern viele Vortheile. 7. Den wievielsten Theil Ihres Ver mögens haben Sie verloren? 8. Ich habe mehr als die Hälfte verloren. 9. Den wievielsten reisen Sie von hier ab? 10. Meine Abreise ist auf den zwölften dieses Monats festgeseßt. 11. Den wievielsten wird Ihr Herr Bruder hierherkommen? 12. Ich erwartete ihn schon vor (Sect. XXXI. 1) drei Tagen. 13. Vor einem Jahre war ich noch in Deutschland. 14. In Weimar hatten vor wenigen Jahren die gelehrtesten und Flugsten Männer ihre Wohnung. 15. Das Gijsen ist nüßlicher, als Geld und Silber, obgleich der Werth des Goltes und Silbers größer ift. 16. Die ganze Menge war nur Einer Ansicht. 17. Man frrach von nichts, als von der Zukunft. 18. Ich schrieb meinem Freunde nur wenige Worte 19. Um die ganze Start herum lagerten nichts als grausame Feinte. 20.

Nur Gewalt konnte bier wirken. 21. Obschon er nichts als Mübe und Arbeit hat, so (Sect. XLIII. 4) ift er doch immer heiteren Gemüthes. EXERCISE 115.

1. Is your brother as cautious as your uncle? 2. He is not so cautious as my uncle. 3. Take neither more nor less than necessity requires. 4. Although he possesses a beautiful estate, nevertheless I will resign to him a part of mine. 5. They did nothing but complain of their last mishap. 6. I saw nobody in the saloon but the blind piper. 7. The longer he stayed with him, the more impatient he became. 8. On what day of the month will your friend take his departure from here? 9. His departure is fixed for the fourteenth of next month. 10. We will go this way, in order to see the landscape near at hand. 11. Nothing but joyfulness was in the whole family. 12. Only one wish remained over to him. 13. No one is so worthy of our kindness as the friend of my brother.

SECTION LXI.-REGIMEN OF NUMERALS, ETC. Words denoting quantity, weight, or measure, are seldom put in the plural, though connected with numerals signifying more than one; as:-Gin Pfund, one pound; zehn Pfund, ten pound(s); drei Acer, three acre(s); zwölf Fuß, twelve foot (feet).

Feminine nouns, however, are usually excepted from this rule; as-Sechs Ellen, six ells; fieben Meilen, seven miles, etc.

When, between the term of quantity and the thing whose quantity or measure is specified, there intervenes no qualifying word, both nouns stand in the same case; as:-Ein Pfund Zucker, one pound (of) sugar; zwei Pfund Zucker, two pounds (of) sugar ; trei Baar Schube, three pair (of) shoes; neunzig Stück Rindrich, ninety head (of) cattle. (§ 15. 2 e, § 123.)

1. Adjectives are formed by suffixing the word jährig from Jahr, to the cardinal numbers; as-G8 ist einjährig, it is a year old. Dieses Pferd ist vierjährig, this is a four-year-old horse, Gin hundert-jähriger Mann, a hundred-year-old man (a centenarian).

Nouns are formed by adding er to the cardinals (§ 51. 2); as:-Gin Dreißiger (ein Mann von dreißig Jahren), a man of thirty years of age. Gin Achtziger, an octogenarian. Der Achtuntywanziger (Wein), the wine of the vintage of 1828.

Huntert (a hundred), and Tausent (a thousand), when placed before a noun, do not generally take the article before them; as:-Er hat hundert Schafe und neunzig Ochsen, he has (a) hundred sheep and ninety oxen. Used without a noun, they, as in English, assume the plural, as :-Hunterte von Menschen sterben ver Hunger, hundreds of men die of hunger. Tausende fallen in ter Schlacht, thousands fall in (the) battle.