8. Ish, like, ly, signify likeness; as, in Childish, Saintlike, Maidenly 9. Ive, able, and ible, denote capacity; as, in Communicative, Profitable, Contemptible. 10. Less denotes privation; ish denotes a small degree of any thing; as, in Artless, Blackish. 11. Ate, en, fy, ise, ize, denote to make; as, in Alienate, Brighten, Justify, Epitomise, Methodize. 12. Ly denotes like; as, in Kindly. Ward signifies in the direction of; as, in Homeward. English 299. COMPOSITION OF ENGLISH WORDS. words are derived from each other in a variety of ways: 1. Sometimes the noun forms the root, from which are derived Adjectives and Verbs; thus, 300. Sometimes the Verb is the root, and supplies 301. Sometimes from Verbs are derived the names of the agent or doer and of the thing; thus, 303. Sometimes the old third Person Singular is contracted in the formation of certain nouns; thus, 304. Rule for the pronunciation of Compounds. — It must be observed that the long sounds in the simple words, generally become short in the compounds; thus, Vine, vineyard; clean, cleanly; dear, dearth; chaste, chastity; fōre, forehead; hōly, holiday; please, pleasant. 305. a. From Adjectives are sometimes formed nouns and verbs, either by affixes or prefixes; thus, b. Some nouns are formed from adjectives by contrac tion; thus, Length from long; breadth from broad; sloth from slow. 306. a. The different parts of speech are formed from each other either by prefixes or affixes, as will be seen from the following examples: [Please.-Please, displease — verbs. Pleasing, pleasant, pleasurable, unpleasing, unpleasant, displeasing - adjectives. Pleasure, displeasure-subst. of the feeling. Pleasantry, pleasantness-subst. of the thing felt. [Pleasantly, unpleasantly-adverbs. Fit.-Fit, befit, misfit, refit, unfit - verbs. b. Words derived from each other, however different they may be as to the class to which they belong, are always, more or less, allied in signification; thus, please, the verb; pleasure, pleasurableness, the nouns; pleasant, pleasurable, the adjectives; and pleasantly, pleasurably, the adverbs, though different in their application, and modified in their meaning by the changes which they undergo, yet are all expressive of the same leading idea. 4. PRIMARY SIGNIFICATION OF WORDS. LESSON 49. 307. All words were at first used only in one sense, but, from various causes, they are now frequently employed in very different acceptations. 308. a. Many words retain their primary or original sense along with a secondary meaning; thus, "Prevent," in the Book of Common Prayer, signifies to go before; but, in common language, it signifies to stop, hinder." 66 b. Other words, on the contrary, have lost their primary signification, and retain merely their secondary or accidental import; thus, Gossip originally meant a sponsor for an infant, but now signifies only a tattling com panion." 66 309. A word can have only one primary, but it may have several secondary meanings. The primary mean which the remotest of its secondary meanings can be explained. Thus, heat and hate, though at present very differently applied, are, according to Dr. Webster, radically the same word, being derived from the Saxon root, hatian, to heat or agitate, to be hot. 310. Words pass from original to secondary applications, according to the following Rules: 1. Words which primarily denote the properties of matter, are extended to describe the analogous mental and moral qualities. Thus, Sanguine (from sanguis, blood) signifies primarily, red, like blood; secondarily, ardent. 2. Words are often transferred from one object to another, which has some resemblance, real or supposed, to the former. Thus, the Latin granum, a grain of corn (whence the English grain), is the parent of granite, a stone spotted as if with grains. 3. Words of a generic signification are often restricted in their application to a specific object or idea. Thus, Deist, which primarily denotes one who has or admits a God, is now appropriated to one who believes in a God, but rejects Christianity. 4. Other words, originally specific, become general terms. Thus, Philippic, the name of the orations in which Demosthenes inveighed against Philip of Macedon, is now used to denote invective in general. 5. In many words, the change from one meaning to another, consists merely in a slight deflection or difference of application. Thus, From the Latin primus, first, are deduced Prime, early, first rate. To prime, to put the first powder in the pan of a gun. Primer, a first book for children. Premier, the first minister of state. Primate, the first or highest ecclesiastic. Primitive, ancient. Prim (from primitive), formal, precise. Primrose, an early flower in spring. 6. Many words owe their secondary sense to purely accidental and often very singular associations. Thus, Atlas, a collection of maps, is derived from Atlas, an African king, who from his fondness for astronomy, is said to have supported the heavens on his back, and whose portrait in this attitude is often prefixed to books of maps. Dactyl, a foot in verse, consisting of one long and two short syllables, is from dactylos (Gr.), a finger, a finger consisting of one long and two short joints. Additional information on this and the other portions of Derivation, will be derived by consulting Black's Student's Guide; Oswald's Etymological Dictionary; Booth's Analytical Dictionary; and Webster's Dictionary. PART III. - SYNTAX. LESSON 50. 311. SYNTAX treats of the Agreement, Government, Connection, and proper Arrangement of words in a sen tence. Syntax, from úvrağış (sūntaxis), compounded of rv, with, and rarow, to order. 312. A Sentence is a collection of words, so arranged as to form one complete proposition or enunciation of a thought. 313. a. Sentences are of two kinds, Simple and Compound. b. A simple sentence has only one subject and one personal verb; as, "Charles studies his lessons." Personal verbs are those which have all the persons in each number. c. A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences, so connected by conjunctions or relatives as to form only one complete sense; as, Industry procures competence, and frugality preserves it." 66 So also, "He who preserves me, whose I am, and whom I ought to serve, is eternal," that is, "He is eternal | who preserves me | whose I am and whom I ought to serve." d. There are several sorts of simple sentences. An explicative or affirmative explains or asserts something; as, "I admire Paley's works." A negative sentence is one in which the adverb not is used; as, "I do not speak." An imperative sentence commands; as, "Hear." "Attend." An interrogative sentence asks a question; as," Is he teaching?" 314. A phrase is two or more words put together, so as to express a certain relation between our ideas without affirming any thing; as, "A man of honour." A phrase merely assumes or takes something for granted, but a sentence or proposition asserts or affirms; thus, were we to say, A man of honour despises all meanness," the expression would become a sentence, because something would then be affirmed concerning a A man of honour," respecting whom no assertion had been made in the example. A phrase, then, is a connected assemblage of words without a finite verb. 315. An Idiom is that form of expression which is peculiar to a nation; thus, We may say, "My name is F Peter," but the Latins would say, "the name to me is Peter," (est Mihi nomen Petro). We may say, "I am short of money," the Latins would say, "Money is wanting to me," deficit mihi pecunia. 316. a. Every sentence consists of two parts, the Subject and the Predicate. The Subject is the thing of which something is affirmed or denied, and is always in the nominative case; the Predicate is that which is affirmed or denied respecting the subject; as, "Charles studies his lessons." Here, Charles is the subject; studies his lessons, the predicate. b. In the predicate, when the verb is transitive, the noun or pronoun denoting the object effected, is in the objective case. c. When the verb to be is used it is termed the copula, or that which forms the connection between the subject and predicate; as, "The father is learned;" here, father is the subject, is the copula, and learned the predicate. In the sentence, "Great is the Lord;" Lord is the subject, is the copula, and great the predicate. d. The subject may be not only a noun or pronoun but an infinitive mood or part of a sentence. The predicate may be either a verb denoting an action or condition and its object, as, "Autumn gives apples;" or, it may be a verb of existence, with dependent nouns, adjectives, or participles, as, "The earth is spherical." The subject and its predicate form a proposition or sentence. e. Examples illustrating the subject and predicate; the predicate being equal to the verb and object. Subject. Solon Solon, the Athenian, Idleness and Prosperity Man's present state Predicate the verb and object. effected a change. effected a great change in the government. tend to generate folly and vice. renders sobriety of mind necessary. 317. a. Sentences are divided by points or stops. Those parts of a sentence which are separated by commas, are called clauses; and those separated by semicolons, are called members. b. The clauses of a compound sentence are either principal or parenthetical. The principal clause is that which contains the leading proposition; a parenthetical, or secondary clause, is a simple sentence, or part of a sentence, modifying the principal clause. Thus, in this sentence," He will be punished, unless he repent," the clanse, "unless he repent," is parenthetical; and," He will be punished," is the principal. c. Adjuncts are words of different parts of speech used to modify others; as, adjectives are the adjuncts of nouns, sometimes nouns to nouns; as, " Cicero, the orator;" here, the word orator is the adjunct to Cicero. 318. a. Syntax consists of four parts; Concord, Government, Connection, and Arrangement of words in a sentence. b. Concord is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender, number, case, or person. c. Government or regimen is that power which one |