Without has an opposite meaning to with; i. e. be out.

b. On, in common conversation, frequently becomes o' or a'; as, "o'clock ;" that is, on the clock; aside, on side; asleep, on sleep. So also we say, "He went a hunting;" ;" "a fishing;" &c.; that is, on hunting, on fishing, or on a hunting excursion, &c. In the Bible, we see "He was a-hungered," a loose colloquial form current about 200 years ago.

c. For an explanation of the inseparable prepositions, see 295, under Derivation.

8. CONJUNCTIONS.

LESSON 40.

227. A Conjunction joins words and sentences together; as, "One and one make two;" "He and I must go."

a. In the phrase, “One and one make two," the word and expresses addition; that is, one added to one makes two. In the sentence, "He and I must go," the word and unites two sentences, and thus avoids an unnecessary repetition; thus, instead of saying," He must go," "I must go," we connect the words He, I, as the same thing is affirmed of both, namely, must go. Sometimes also, conjunctions begin sentences after a full period, showing some relation or connection between the sentences in the general tenour of discourse.

b. Conjunction is a term derived from conjungo, to join together.

228. Conjunctions are divided, in reference to their signification, into several classes.

a. Copulative Conjunctions connect things which are to be considered jointly; as, And, also, both.

b. Disjunctive Conjunctions imply diversity, negation, doubt, or opposition; as, Either, or, neither, nor, whether, lest, but, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless, though, although.

c. The Causal Conjunctions are, because, for, since, that; the Comparative, than; the Conditional, except, if, unless, provided; the Illative, denoting an inference, then, therefore, wherefore; those of Equality are, as, as well as, so.

d. Compound conjunctions, or conjunctional phrases, are formed of two or more words; as, As if, in order that, as though, and also, but also, &c.

9. INTERJECTIONS.

229. An Interjection expresses a sudden passion or emotion of the mind.

a. The most common interjections are, Ah! aha! alack! alas! behold! fie! foh! ha, ha, ha! hark! hem! hist! halloo! hum! hush! huzza! indeed! la! lo! O! oh! pshaw! tush!

b. Interjection is a term derived from the Latin Interjectus, which denotes some.. thing thrown in between two or more objects.

c. Sometimes verbs, nouns, and adjectives, uttered by way of exclamation, are considered as interjections; as, Hail! heavens! shocking!

ON THE INTERCHANGE OF PARTS OF SPEECH.

LESSON 41.

230. a. In many instances, the same word, without undergoing any alteration in form, belongs sometimes to one part of speech, and sometimes to another. Regard, therefore, must always be had to the particular signification of the words, since that must determine to what part of speech each belongs. Thus, the word light may be a noun, an adjective, or a verb, according to the sense in which it is employed; as, "The light (noun) of the sun;' "Light (adj.) rooms;" ""To light (verb) a candle." Some words are distinguished by a difference of the accent; as, "The próduce (noun) of the fields;" "The fields produce (verb) in abundance.

b. The same word must originally have been, both in signification and use, only one part of speech. But, in process of time, it would be employed to perform several distinct offices, and hence, according to its import, would be ranked under different parts of speech.

231. The words which generally occasion a difficulty to the young student, in ascertaining to what part of speech they respectively belong, are, as, after, but, for, either, neither, however, much, more, most, no, save, since, that, then, therefore.

a. As is used, 1st, as a Relative, as, "The terms are as (those, which) follow;" 2nd, as an Adverb, thus, " As eloquent as Cecero;" 3rd, as a Conjunc ion, when it serves as a connective; as, "He wrote as (because) I had requested him." "As a poet, he holds a high rank."

b. After, before, above, beneath, and several other words of the same kind, have sometimes the nature of adverbs; as, "They had their reward soon after; "He died not long before;" ""He dwells above." But if the nouns time ani place be supplied, they will resume their proper import of prepositions; as, "He died not long before that time."

c. But may be considered, 1st. As a preposition; thus, "None but (except) a fool will say so." This sentence might, however, be resolved into two, thus, "None will say so; but a fool will say so;" according to this explanation, the word but would, in this instance, preserve its proper nature of a conjunction. 2nd. As a conjunction; as, "William resides in Leeds, but Thomas abroad." But is sometimes improperly used for only; as, "We are but (only) of yesterday."

d. For is used, 1st. As a preposition; as, " He contended for victory." 2nd. As a conjunction; as, I submitted, for (because) it was vain to resist."

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e. Either, Neither, are used, 1st. As Adjective Pronouns; thus, "Take either of the two books." 2nd. As Conjunctions; as, "Either learn or depart." He neither walked nor rode."

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f. However is used, 1st. As an adverb; as, "To trace the ways of highest agents, deemed however wise." 2nd. As a Conjunction; as, You might, however, have taken a fairer way.'

g. Much, more, and most are used, 1st. As Adjectives; thus, "Much money was expended:"" More praises have been bestowed;" "Most men think indistinctly." 2nd. As Adverbs; thus, "It is much better to labour than to be slothful ;" "He is more diligent;""He has acted most presumptuously." In the sentence, 66 Where

much is given, much is required," much is an adjective, some word being understood; as, "Where much grace has been given, much gratitude is required."

h. No is sometimes an Adjective, thus, "I have no paper;" sometimes an Adverb, as, "Were you present ?" "No."

i. Save is sometimes a Verb, as, " He can save us ;" and sometimes a Preposition, as, "All were present, save John."

j. Since is sometimes a Conjunction; as, “ Since we must part, let us do it peaceably." 2ndly. A Preposition; as, "I have not seen him since that time." 3rdly. An Adverb; as, " Our friendship commenced long since."

k. That is either a Relative, an Adjective Pronoun, or a Conjunction. See 119. e, under Pronouns.

1. Then is sometimes an Adverb, as, " He arrived then, and not before;" sometimes a Conjunction, as, “I rest, then, (therefore) upon this argument."

m. Therefore is an Adverb when, without joining sentences, it follows the words, and, if, since, &c., and gives only the sense of for that reason; but when it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a Conjunction, as, " He is good, therefore (conj.) he is happy." "He is good, and therefore (adv.) he is happy."

III. DERIVATION.

LESSONS 42, 43.

232. Derivation is that part of Etymology which treats of the origin and primary signification of words.

233. Words are either Primitive or Derivative.

a. A Primitive or radical word is not derived from another word in the language; as, art, kind, wise.

b. A Derivative word is one that is formed from a primitive, either by prefixing or annexing a syllable or syllables; as, unjust from just; artful from art; kindness from kind.

234. The primitive words of a language are always few in comparison with the total amount of its vocabulary.

235. The use of derivatives arises from the natural disposition in man to alter and modify words already in existence, rather than invent sounds altogether arbitrary, to express such new ideas as the enlargement of his knowledge suggests.

1. HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

236. OF THE PRINCIPAL MIGRATIONS INTO EUROPE. The Migrations from the East which have been the principal means of peopling the continent of Europe as well as its islands, are, according to Dr. Bosworth and other distinguished philologists, the Celtic, Gothic, and Scla

vonian.

237. The Celts, who, at a remote period, migrated from the East, were the first occupants of a considerable portion of the West of Europe. From them are derived the following languages:

Celtic, whence sprung Ancient Gaulish, Ancient British, Ancient Irish.

238. The Second Great Migration occurred about 700 years before the Christian era, when the Gothic or Teutonic tribes, leaving the country between the Euxine and Caspian seas, traversed the various countries of Europe, and eventually occupied the northern, central, and western regions. From the Gothic are derived the following languages:

Gothic, whence Anglo-Saxon, Francic, MasoGothic, Cimbric or Old Icelandic.

239. The third and last stream of population which, according to Bosworth, flowed into Europe about the third century before Christ, conveyed the Sclavonian or Sarmatian nations. These occupied Russia, Poland, Eastern Prussia, Moravia, Bohemia, and their vicinity. From these Sclavonian tribes a third genus of European languages arose, as the Russian, Polish, Bohemian, &c.

With the Sclavonian and the Celtic languages, however, the English has very little, if any affinity.

240. The Fourth class of languages which may here be noticed, as influencing the southern dialects of Europe and supplying hundreds of words to the English, are the Greek and Latin. The Greek, now termed Romaic, is, in a modified form, still spoken in Modern Greece and the islands of the Ægean sea, while Latin forms the parent of the French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and Sicilian dialects. The Greeks and Latins were a branch of the great Caucasian family which early passed over into Greece and Italy.

241. BRITISH AND ROMAN PERIOD. The earliest account of ancient Britain which has reached modern times is that contained in the Fifth Book of the Commentaries of Julius Cæsar. According to Cæsar's description, the island was very populous even at that period, about fiftyfive years before Christ. The maritime regions towards the east were occupied by various tribes from ancient Belgica, who were very similar to the Gauls in language and customs. The interior and western districts were possessed by tribes whose origin was involved in obscurity, but who, perhaps, had emigrated at some distant period from the shores of Spain.

242. When Britain was completely subdued by the victorious arms of Agricola, in a. D. 85, and annexed to the Roman empire as a permanent province, every exertion was employed by the Roman governors to instruct the British youth in the language, manners, and civilisation of their conquerors. In process of time numerous Latin words were incorporated into the Celtic, or language of ancient Britain, many of which are still retained in modern Welsh.