A sound is a small sea so shallow that it may be sounded; as Long Island Sound.

A gulf or bay is a part of an ocean, sea, or lake, extending up into the land. The terms sea, gulf, and bay are very vaguely used. Sometimes the same body of water is called a sea, and also a gulf, or bay; as the Red Sea or Arabian Gulf, the Adriatic Sea, or Gulf of Venice. Sometimes a lake is called a sea, as the Caspian sea and sea of Aral, both of which answer to the definition of lake.

A harbor or haven is a part of the sea, almost surrounded by land, where vessels may anchor with safety.

A road is a place at some distance from the shore where ships may safely ride at anchor.

A strait, is a narrow channel connecting two large bodies of water; as the strait of Gibraltar.

A river is a large stream of inland water; small streams are called brooks.

A frith or estuary is the part of a river towards its mouth which is affected by the tide. It may be considered as an arm of the

sea.

Grand Divisions.] Geographers have commonly considered the world under four grand divisions, America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Besides these, there are two clusters of islands, which form separate divisions, Australasia and Polynesia.

America is remarkable for the size and grandeur of its mountains, lakes, and rivers. Large parts of America are inhabited only by savages and wild beasts, and have never yet been visited by white men.

Europe is the smallest of the four grand divisions, but is distinguished above all the rest for learning and science, for excellence in the useful and elegant arts, and for the intelligence, refinement, activity and enterprise of her inhabitants. Owing to her superior knowledge and military skill, this little portion of the globe holds the greater part of America, and large portions of Asia, Africa and their islands in colonial bondage.

Asia is remarkable, as the part of the world where the human race were first planted, and as the theatre of almost all the interesting events recorded in the Bible. Here was the garden of Eden; here lived Adam and Noah, Abraham and all the prophets; here our Saviour was born and was crucified; here was Jerusalem, and Babylon and Nineveh. Here were established the Assyrian, the Babylonian and the Persian empires.

Africa is the most barbarous portion of the world. It is remarkable for its vast deserts of burning sands, for the multitude of its ferocious animals, and for the black color of its inhabitants.

Political Divisions.] An empire consists of several large countries, under the dominion of one man, usually called an emperor. A kingdom consists of a single country, subject to a monarch, called a king.

A dutchy, a grand dutchy, and a principality, are smaller portions of country subject severally to a duke, a grand duke, and a prince, who are themselves subject to the sovereign power.

Provinces, countries, departments, cities, towns, parishes, hundreds, &c. are still smaller subdivisions of countries.

Governments.] There are but three simple forms of government, monarchy, aristocracy and democracy.

1. A simple monarchy is a government in which the sovereign power is exercised by one man.

If the power of the monarch is limited by law it is called a limited monarchy; if not, it is an absolute monarchy. In absolute monarchies there is usually some check upon the power of the sovereign, in the institutions or customs of the country; but if not, the government is a despotism.

2. An aristocracy is a government administered by a few men, usually styled the nobility.

3. A democracy is a government exercised by the great body of the people.

When two or all of the simple forms are united, it is denominated a mixed government. Thus the British government partakes of the monarchical, aristocratical, and democratical forms.

Population.] The number of people in the world is variously estimated, from 500,000,000 to 1,000,000,000. Hassel makes it 682,000,000. The following is his statement of the extent and population of each of the grand divisions of the globe.

The third column shows the density of the population, or the number of inhabitants on each square mile of the territory.

Religions.] The principal religions of the world are the Christian, the Mahometan, the Jewish, and the Pagan, or Heathen.

Christianity is the religion of Europe, and of European settlements in every part of the world.

Mahometanism prevails in the northern part of Africa, and the southern and western parts of Asia.

The Jews are dispersed all over the world,

The Pagans or Heathen are more numerous than all the rest, and include all savages in every part of the world, together with the inhabitants of the half-civilized countries in the southeast part of Asia.

The numbers attached to the different religions may be estimated as follows.—

Christians are subdivided into three principal sects.

1. Roman Catholics, who have a Pope at their head, and are thence often called Papists. The Roman Catholics inhabit the southern parts of Europe, and the Spanish, French and Portuguese settlements in different parts of the world.

2. Protestants are those who have separated from the church of Rome, and no longer acknowledge the authority of the Pope. They inhabit the northwest parts of Europe, the United States of America, and the English and Dutch settlements in different parts of the world.

Protestants are subdivided into a great many smaller sects, the principal of which are Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Baptists, Methodists, Moravians, Friends or Quakers, &c.

3. The Greek church is established in Russia in Europe, and part of Turkey. The members of this church never acknowledged the authority of the Pope.

AMERICA.

Situation and Extent.] America is bounded on the east by the Atlantic, which separates it from Europe and Africa; and on the west, by the Pacific, which separates it from Asia. Towards the north, its limits have not been discovered. Towards the south, it terminates in a point, called Cape Horn. It is more than 9,000 miles long, and, on an average, about 1500 broad.

History of its Discovery.] America was unknown to the civilized world till about 300 years ago. It was discovered in 1492, by Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa. From long study of Geography, Columbus became deeply impressed with the belief, that there was a new continent in the west. To determine this point, he resolved upon a voyage; and applied to the governments of Genoa, Spain, Portugal and others, for the necessary assistance; but his applications were rejected.

At length Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of Castile and Arragon, listened to his proposals; a squadron of three small vessels was fitted out, victualled for twelve months, furnished with 90 men, and Columbus appointed admiral,

He left Spain in August, and steered his course for the Canary islands; and thence, sailed due west, for more than 2000 miles, into an unknown ocean, without seeing land. His men now became impatient, and began to mutiny, and Columbus was forced to promise that he would return, if land was not discovered in three days.

Favorable indications soon appeared. On the 11th of October, a little before midnight, Columbus from the forecastle descried a light; and shortly after, the cry of land! land! resounded from the Pinta, the headmost ship. The morning light confirmed the report. One of the West-India islands was directly before them. The crews of all the ships with shouts of joy then gave praise to God; and throwing themselves at the feet of Columbus, implored his forgiveness for their incredulity and disobedience.

On the return of Columbus to Spain, the news of his success soon spread abroad; others were inspired with the same spirit of enterprise; expeditions were fitted out from various parts of Europe; and in a few years, the whole continent was discovered from Labrador to Cape Horn.

Inhabitants.] The number of inhabitants in America is commonly estimated at 35,000,000. They may be divided into three classes, according to their color. 1. Whites. They are the descendants of Europeans, who have migrated to America, at various periods since its discovery. 2. Negroes. They are the descendants of Africans, who were forced from their native country, and sold as slaves to the American planters. 3. Indians; of a copper complexion; they are the descendants of the Aborigines, or those who occupied the country at the time of its discovery. Besides these, there is a small class of mulattoes, mestizoes, and others, formed by the mixture of the 3 original classes.

The whites constitute more than half the population; the negroes, one eighth part; and the Indians, about one third. The whites and negroes are rapidly increasing; the Indians are diminishing.

Mountains.] There is a range of mountains which runs through the whole length of the continent, a distance of more than 11,000 miles; and is the longest range of mountains on the globe.

Beginning at the southern extremity of the continent, in lat. 54° · S. it runs along the whole western coast of South America, and, crossing the isthmus of Darien, passes into Mexico in North America. After leaving Mexico, it continues in a course west of north, and terminates, it is supposed, on the Frozen Ocean, in about lat. 70° N.

The different parts of this range are called by different names. The part in South America is called the Andes; the part in Mexico, the Cordilleras of Mexico; and the part north of Mexico. the Rocky Mountains. The highest parts of this range are in South America and Mexico. There are many summits from 15,000 to 20.000 feet in height, and several of the loftiest are volcanoes.

Divisions.] America is divided by the isthmus of Darien into North and South America., Between these two divisions are the West-India islands.

NORTH-AMERICA.

Situation.] North America is bounded on the E. by the Atlantic Ocean; on the S. E. it is separated from South America by the isthmus of Darien; on the W. is the Pacific Ocean. The southern extremity is in N. lat. 7° 30'. The limits towards the north have never been ascertained.

Divisions. The three great divisions of North America are, 1. British America, in the north;

2.

The United States, in the middle, and

3. Spanish America, in the south.

These three include the whole of North America, except 4. Greenland (belonging to Denmark) in the

northeast, and

5. The Russian Settlements, in the northwest. The two last are of little extent, and little consequence, and hardly worthy of mention under a general division.

Climate.] The climate on the eastern side of North America is much colder than in the same latitudes in Europe.

Mountains.] There are two great ranges of mountains in North America, the western and the eastern. The western is by far the longest. It comes from South America, over the isthmus of Darien, and after passing through the whole length of Spanish America, proceeds in a direction west of north, till it terminates on the Frozen Ocean, in about lat. 70° N. In its general course, it is parallel with the coast of the Pacific Ocean, from which it is several hundred miles distant. The part of this range which is in Mexico, is called the Cordilleras of Mexico, and the part north of Mexico the Rocky Mountains.

The eastern range is wholly within the United States. It runs from southwest to northeast, and in its general course is parallel with the Atlantic coast, from which it is 200 or 300 miles distant. It is called the Apalachian range, and embraces two distinct and parallel ridges; the western, or Allegany ridge, and the eastern, or Blue ridge.

Bays or Gulfs.] The five largest bays in north America are, Baffin's Bay, Hudson's Bay, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Gulf of California.

Islands.] The most important islands are Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and St. John's, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence; Nantucket and Long-Island, on the coast of the United States; and the Bermuda islands, in lat. 32 N. The West-India islands lie between North and South America,

Lakes.] There are more large lakes in N. America than in any other part of the world. The seven largest are Slave Lake, Lake Winnipeg, Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario. The last five are very near each other, and form a regular chain, by means of short rivers or straits, which run from one to the other.