Small Circles. Those circles, whose planes divide the sphere unequally, are called small circles. Their planes do not pass through its centre. The two Tropics, and the two Polar Circles, are small

circles.

Axis. The axis of the earth, or any heavenly body, is an imaginary straight line passing through the centre, around which it performs its diurnal rotation.

Poles. The poles are the extremities of the axis.

Equator. The Equator is a great circle, whose plane divides the earth and the heavens into northern and southern hemispheres. The axis of the earth makes a right angle with its plane. It is often called the Equinoctial; because, when the sun is directly over it, the days and nights are of equal lengths in all parts of the world.

Meridian. The Meridian is a great circle, whose plane divides the earth and the heavens into eastern and western hemispheres. There is an indefinite number of meridians; for all places, that lie east or west of each other, have different meridians. They all pass through the poles of the earth, and cut the equator at right angles. The word meridian is derived from meridies, mid-day; because, when the sun is on the meridian of any place, it is noon at that place. Geographers usually assume the meridian, which passes through the metropolis of their own country, as the first meridian. But as great inconvenience and confusion result from this practice, the first meridian, throughout the following work, will be that of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, near London.

Ecliptic. The Ecliptic is a great circle whose plane makes an angle of 23°28' with the plane of the equator. Considered as a circle in the heavens, its circumference is the path, which the earth describes annually in its revolution round the sun. The points in which the ecliptic intersects the equator are called the equinoctial points; because, when the sun is in either of those points, it shines on both poles, and the day is then equal to the night throughout the earth. The meridian, which passes through these points, is called the equinoctial colure. The two points in the ecliptic, which are 90 degrees distant from these, are called the solstitial points. The meridian passing through these points is called the solstitial colure, and is the only meridian which cuts the ecliptic at right angles. The sun passes through the equinoctial points on the 20th March, and the 23d of September. The former is called the vernal; the latter, the autumnal equinox. The sun is in the solstitial points on the 21st of June, and the 21st of December. The former is called the summer; the latter the winter solstice.

The ecliptic is divided into 12 equal parts of 30 degrees each, called signs. These begin at the vernal intersection of the ecliptic with the equator, and are numbered from west to east. The names and characters of the signs, with the months in which the sun enters them, are as follows:

The first six are called northern signs; and the last six southern, Zodiac. The Zodiac is a broad belt in the heavens, 16 degrees wide; in the middle of which is the ecliptic. It comprehends the orbits of all the planets.

Horizon. The horizon is either sensible or real. The sensible horizon is the small circle which limits our prospect, where the sky and land or water seem to meet. The real horizon is a great circle, parallel to the former, which divides the earth into upper and lower hemispheres.

The point of the heavens directly over our heads is called the Zenith; and the opposite point, or that directly under our feet, is called the Nadir. The straight line connecting these two, passes through the centre of the horizon and is called its axis. The zenith and nadir of any place, therefore, are the poles of its horizon. Declination. The declination of a heavenly body is its distance north or south of the equator, measured on a meridian.

Tropics. The Tropics are two small circles, drawn parallel to the equator, at the distance of 23 28 on each side of it. The northern is called the tropic of Cancer; the southern, the tropic of Capricorn. The sun never passes these circles; but, when it has arrived at either, it turns, and goes toward the other. They, of course, bound those places where the sun is vertical.

Polar Circles. The Polar circles are two small circles, parallel to the tropics, described round the poles at the distance of 23° 28'; that around the north pole is called the arctic circle; that around the south pole, the antarctic circle.

A direct or right sphere is that, where both the poles are in the horizon, and the sun, moon and stars ascend directly above, and descend directly below the horizon. This position is peculiar to those places, which are under the equator.

An oblique sphere is that, where all the diurnal motions are oblique to the horizon. This is common to all parts of the earth, except those under the poles and the equator. In an oblique sphere, one of the poles is elevated above, and the other depressed below, the horizon.

A parallel sphere is that where the equator and all its parallels are parallel to the horizon. This position is peculiar to those parts which lie directly under the poles.

Zones. Zones are the divisions of the earth's surface, formed by the tropics and polar circles. There are five zones; one torrid, two temperate, and two frigid zones.

The torrid zone is that part of the earth's surface included be tween the two tropics. The equator passes through the middle of this zone. The temperate zones are included between the tropics and the polar circles; and the frigid zones, between the polar circles and the poles.

In every part of the torrid zone the sun is vertical, or directly over the heads of the inhabitants, twice every year, and the days and nights are always nearly equal.

In the temperate zones the sun is never vertical, but rises and sets every 24 hours. The days and nights are unequal, and their inequality increases as you approach the poles.

In the frigid zones, the sun never sets for a certain number of days in summer, and never rises for an equal number in winter. At the poles, the sun is 6 months above, and 6 months below the horizon; of course he rises only once in a year.

The inhabitants of the different zones may be distinguished by the direction in which their shadows fall at noon.-Those who inhabit the torrid zone, have their shadows one part of the year north, and the rest of the year south of them at noon day; but when the sun is vertical, which is twice every year, they have no shadow at noon.

In the temperate zones the shadows at noon always fall one way; in the northern temperate zone they always fall towards the north, and in the southern always towards the south.

At the poles, the sun for six months moves round without setting, and the shadows are in every 24 hours of that period, successively cast towards every point of the horizon.

Climates. The word climate has two significations, one geographical and the other astronomical. In common language, the word is used to denote the difference in the seasons and the temperature of the air. When two places differ in these respects, they are said to be in different climates.

In an astronomical sense, a climate is a tract of the earth's surface, included between the equator and a parallel of latitude, or between two parallels, of such a breadth, that the length of the day in one is half an hour longer than in the other. Within the polar circles, however, the breadth of a climate is such, that the length of the longest day, or the longest time of the sun's continuance above the horizon without setting, is a month longer in one parallel, as you proceed towards the elevated pole, than in the other.

There are 30 climates between the equator and either pole. In the first 24, between the equator and either polar circle, the period of increase for every climate is half an hour. In the other six, between either polar circle and its pole, the period of increase for each climate is a month.

Latitude. The latitude of a place is its distance from the equator, reckoned in degrees, &c. north or south, on the meridian. The

greatest latitude is that of the poles, which are 90 degrees distant from the equator. If the place be situated between the equator and the north pole, it is said to be in north latitude; if it lie between the equator and the south pole, it is in south latitude. A parallel of latitude is any small circle parallel with the equator.

The elevation of the pole above the horizon is always equal to the latitude of the place; for to a person situated at the equator, both poles will rest in the horizon. If you travel one, two, or more degrees north, the north pole will rise one, two, or more degrees, and will keep pace with your distance from the equator. The inhabitants of the earth are sometimes distinguished, according to the several meridians and parallels under which they live.

1. Those who live in the same latitude, and same hemisphere, but under opposite meridians.-Their seasons are the same, as also the length of their days and nights; but when it is mid-day with one, it is midnight with the other.

2. Those who live in the same latitude, and under the same meridian, but in opposite hemispheres. These have noon and midnight at the same time; but the longest day with the one is the shortest with the other; consequently, when it is midsummer with one, it is midwinter with the other.

3. Those who live in the same latitude, but in opposite hemispheres, and under opposite meridians. These are called Antipodes. When it is mid-day with one it is midnight with the other; the longest day with one is the shortest with the other; and consequently, when it is midsummer with the one, it is midwinter with the other.

Longitude. Every place on the surface of the earth has its meridian. The longitude of a place is the distance of its meridian from some other fixed meridian, measured on the equator. Longitude is either east or west. All places east of the fixed or first meridian are in east longitude; all west, in west longitude.

Opposition. A body is in opposition with the sun, when the earth is directly between it and the sun.

Conjunction. A body is in conjunction with the sun, when they áre both in a straight line with the earth, on the same side of it. If the body is between the earth and the sun, it is said to be in its inferior conjunction; but when the sun is between it and the earth, the body is said to be in its superior conjunction.

Quadrature. A body is in quadrature, when a line drawn from the centre of the body to the centre of the earth, makes a right angle with a line, drawn from the centre of the earth to the centre of the sun.

Elongation. The greatest elongation of a heavenly body is its greatest apparent distance from the sun.

Eccentricity. The eccentricity of the orbit of a planet is the distance from the sun to the centre of the orbit; the sun not being in the centre, but in one of the foci.

Aphelion. A planet is in its aphelion, when it is farthest from

the sun.

Perihelion. The perihelion is that point in the orbit of a planet, which is nearest to the sun.

A Digit is a twelfth part of the diameter of the sun or moon. Planets are bodies, which revolve about the sun in orbits nearly circular, whose planes make a very small angle with the plane of the ecliptic; and with a motion according to the order of the signs of the ecliptic, or from west to east.

Satellites or moons, are bodies revolving round the planets, which are called their primaries; and, in company with them, round the

sun.

Asteroids are very small bodies, revolving round the sun, in orbits making larger angles with the plane of the ecliptic, and with motions either direct, i. e. from west to east; or retrograde, i. e. from east to west.

Comets are bodies revolving about the sun in extremely elliptical orbits; whose planes may make any angle with the ecliptic, and 'whose motions are either direct or retrograde.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM.

The system of heavenly bodies, to which the earth belongs, is composed of the Sun, the Planets, the Satellites, the Asteroids, and the Comets.

The Sun, the most glorious of the heavenly luminaries, is the source of light, and heat to all the bodies which revolve around it.

The number of Planets is seven; the names of which according to their nearness to the sun, are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Herschel. The two first are called inferior planets; the four last, superior.

The earth has one; Ju-
These revolve round

The number of Satellites is eighteen. piter four; Saturn seven; Herschel six. their respective primaries, and accompany them in their annual revolutions round the sun.

The number of Asteroids at present known is four. Their orbits lie between those of Mars and Jupiter. Their names, according to their nearness to the sun, are Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta The number of Comets belonging to our system is not yet ascertained,

Astronomers have, at different periods, supposed the principal bodies, which compose the solar system, arranged in different orders. Such a supposed arrangement is called a System of the world. The most distinguished of these systems are the Ptolemaic, the Tychonic, and the Copernican.

The PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM is so called from Claudius Ptolemy, a celebrated astronomer of Pelusium in Egypt; not because he was the author of it, but because he adopted and endeavored to support it. According to this hypothesis, the earth is immoveably fixed in the centre of the universe, and all the other bodies revolve round it from east to west in the space of twenty-four hours, at distances, which increase in the order, in which they are here named,