170. Some (A.S. sum) originally meant 'a certain' (Lat. quidam). It still has this force in somebody, sometimes, something. It now denotes an undetermined part of a whole, and is used with numerals to give the sense of about, as "He will last you some eight year or nine year" (Shakspere, Hamlet).

VI.-THE DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.

171. Each (A.S. álcá-ge-hwylc,* i.e., 'ever every one of a sort,') is used both adjectively and substantively.

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172. In the phrases each other," one another,' the two pronouns were formerly independent in their construction, as With greedy force each other doth assail" (Spenser), i.e., "each doth assail other." So in old-fashioned English we find each to other,' 'one from another,' and so on. Nowadays both pronouns are placed after the preposition, as "They did not speak to each other for a week ;' " "They hear from one another daily." The pronouns must therefore now be regarded as forming a sort of compound like the Greek alleloi.

173. Every (old English everalc or everilk, that is, ever each) is a compound of A.S. aefre, 'ever,' and álc, and denotes all of a series taken one by one.

174. Either has two meanings. 1. It means 'each of two,' as, "On either side one (John xix. 18). In this sense it is the modern form of the Anglo-Saxon 'ægder' (ægther)

=

=

2. It

'á-gehwæder,' a compound of á ever, and gehwather= 'both', where the syllable ge has its collective force (see § 171, note). means 'one of two, but not both.' In this sense it comes from 'á-hwæðer' ('ever some one of two'), and has supplanted the form awther or outher, which has still a provincial use.

175. Either may be inflected as a substantive of the singular num.. as Where either's fall determines both their fates."

ber,

Each, every, either and neither are always singular.†

The particle ge was prefixed to the indefinite pronouns in Anglo-Saxon to give the idea of universality, as ge-hwa = every one; ge-hwylc: = every one; ge-hwader both. (Compare the German Gebrüder and Geschwister). These forms were strengthened by prefixing â= ever. Hence came â-ge-hwylcalc each; a-ge-hwaɣer agder either.

+ The older writers were not clear upon this point. Shakspere frequently gives a plural sense to every and neither, Thus, "Every one to rest themselves betake" (Rape of Lucrece, 125); "When neither are alive" (Cymb. iv. 2, 252)..

VII.-REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS.

176. The objective case of the Personal Pronouns, and of the demonstrative he, she, it, may be used in a reflective sense (Latin reflecto, 'I bend back'), when an action directly or indirectly affects the doer of it. Thus

"I'll disrobe me" (Shakspere, Cymb. v. 1, 22.)

I can buy me twenty" (Macb. iv. 2, 40).

"Prepare thee" (Sh. M. Ven. iv. 1, 324).

"Get thee wood enough” (1
(Tempest ii. 2, 165).

"Signor Antonio commends him to you" (M. V. iii. 2, 235).
"Let every soldier hew him down a bough" (Macb. v. 44).

177. In Anglo-Saxon the personal pronouns, in whatever case they were used, were strengthened by having the adjective silf, i.e. self (=same, compare selfsame), agreeing with them (I self,' &c.). This combination of pronoun and adjective is still seen in himself, herself, themselves, oneself, but in the case of the personal pronouns self came somehow to be regarded as a substantive,* and was preceded by the possessive case (myself, thyself, ourselves, yourselves). This combination is now restricted to the First and Second Personal Pronouns, but was formerly (and quite as properly) used also for the Demonstrative of the Third Person, as 'his self, their selves.'

We find from very early times the curious and puzzling idiom, that the strengthened reflectives in the dative case (me-silf, us-silf, &c.), were placed in apposition to pronouns in the nominative, in place of the simple adjective silf or self (I me silf, we us silf, &c.), or might be used as nominatives by themselves. The modern forms are still used in the same way, as "I myself heard it"; "Myself am Hell." There is nothing reflective about self, either as adjective or as substantive (see, eg., "He himself said so "I love you for yourself alone, &c.). The reflective force belongs altogether to the pronoun to which it is appended, or, properly speaking, to the verb that denotes the reflected action.

VIII.-POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

178. Besides the simple possessives her, our, your, their, we use the secondary or double possessive forms, hers, ours, yours, theirs. These are only used when the noun to which they relate is not expressed, as, "My pen is a bad one, give me yours." In modern English mine and thine follow the same rule.

This substantive use of self is clearly seen in 'My own self,' 'Your own selves,' &c. The plural use of the substantive selves probably gave rise to the anomalous form themselves.'

VERB.

179. Definition.

A verb is a word by means of which we can

say something about some person or thing.

In

180. The word which stands for what is spoken about is called the subject of the verb, and is in the nominative case. relation to the Subject, the verb is called the Predicate.

181. A verb tells us with regard to what is spoken about that it does something, or that it is in some state, or that it has something done to it.

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.

182. Verbs are divided into two classes

1. Transitive* Verbs. 2. Intransitive Verbs.

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A Transitive Verb is one which denotes an action or feeling which is directed towards some object; as, strike, "He strikes the ball;" love, He loves his father." The word which stands for the object of the action described by the verb is called the object of the verb. It is put in the objective case. The grammatical object of a verb must not be confounded with the real object of the action.

An Intransitive Verb is one which denotes a state or condition, or an action or feeling which is not directed towards an object; as, to be, to dwell, to sit, to rejoice, to run. Verbs of this kind are sometimes called Neuter Verbs.

183. Many verbs are used, with a difference of meaning, sometimes as transitive verbs, sometimes as intransitive verbs; as, "He ran away; " "He ran a thorn into his finger." "The child speaks already," “He speaks several languages." A transitive verb is used reflectively when followed by a reflective pronoun. This is often omitted,† as

• Latin transire, "to go across;" the action passes over, as it were, from the doer of it to the object of it.

It is only in this case that a verb can properly be said to be a reflective verb. Compare the difference between lavat se and lavatur in Latin, and between TUTTE Eavτóv and TUTTETAL in Greek. Several intransitive verbs were once reflective, as, wend (went), abscond, venture, depart, consort, retire, &c.

E

"The sea breaks (itself) on the rocks; ""The earth moves (itself).” In old English intransitive verbs were often followed by a pronoun used reflectively as, Hie thee home;" "Fare thee well;" "Sit thee down." Some compound verbs are used curiously in this way, as, "To over-sleep oneself;" "He over-ate himself; Vaulting ambition

which o'erleaps itself."

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Transitive verbs are sometimes used with a sort of passive signification, as: "The meat cuts tough," i.e., 'is tough when it is cut ;' "The cakes eat short and crisp," i.e., are short and crisp when they are eaten ;' "The book sold well."

INFLEXIONS OF VERBS.

184. Verbs admit of the following modifications:-Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, Person.

These are expressed partly by inflexion, partly by the use of auxiliary verbs.

A verb is a notional verb, when it is so used as to retain its full and
proper meaning, as "I will go" (i.e., 'I am resolved to go'); "You
may play in the garden" (i.e., You are permitted to play').
A verb is an auxiliary verb when its own proper signification drops
out of sight, and it merely serves to mark some modification of the
notion expressed by another verb. Thus in "He will fall," 'will' does
not imply that he is resolved to fall, but only marks futurity. In "I
work hard that I may gain the prize," may does not express permission,
but helps to indicate the subjunctive mood of the verb 'gain.'

VOICE.

185. Voice is the form of a verb by means of which we show whether the subject of the sentence stands for the doer, or for the object of the action spoken of by the verb. There are two voices

1. The Active Voice. 2. The Passive Voice.

The Active Voice is made up of those forms of a verb which denote that the subject of the sentence stands for the doer of the action described by the verb; as, "The boy strikes the ball.” "The cat killed the mouse."

The Passive Voice is made up of those forms of a verb which denote that the subject of the sentence stands for the object of

1

the action described by the verb; as, "The ball is struck by the boy." The mouse was killed by the cat."

186. The same action may be expressed by either voice, but then the word that is the object of the active verb must be the subject of the passive verb.

In the strict sense of the above definition only transitive verbs can properly be used in the passive voice. But in English a noun (or pronoun) in the objective case following a verb and preposition, or the indirect object of a verb, may be made the subject of a complex passive phrase, as, He spoke to the man-The man was spoken to." "They took great care of him-He was taken great care of." So, promised a new coat ;" ""The dead were refused burial."

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He was

187. The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by prefixing the various parts of the verb be to the perfect participle of the verb. The perfect participle of a transitive verb is passive in meaning.

Some intransitive verbs have their perfect tenses formed by means of the verb be, followed by the past or perfect participle; as, "I am come"; "He is gone." Great care must be taken not to confound these with passive verbs. The sign of the passive voice is not the verb be, but the passive participle that follows it.

MOOD.

188. Moods* (that is Modes) are certain variations of form in verbs, by means of which we can show the mode or manner in which the action or fact denoted by the verb is connected in our thought with the thing that is spoken of.

189. There are four moods :

A. Three Finite Moods.

1. The Indicative Mood.
2. The Imperative Mood.

3. The Subjunctive Mood.

B. The Infinitive Mood.

Mood comes from the Latin modus, "manner"; Indicative from indicare, "to point out"; Imperative from imperare," to command"; Subjunctive from subjungere, "to join on to"; Infinitive from infinitus, "unlimited," i.e., as regards person, number, &c.