it by means of which we show that one thing,* or set of things, possesses a certain quality or attribute in a greater degree than another thing, or set of things.

108. The Comparative Degree (Latin comparativus, from comparo, 'I put together ') is formed from the Positive by adding to it the syllable -er, before which mute -e is dropped, as 'My knife is sharper than yours;' 'John's book is pretty, but mine is prettier;' 'Your parents are richer than mine.' One thing may be compared either with one other, or with a group of several; and a group of things may be compared either with another group or with a single thing. Also a thing may be compared with itself under other circumstances, as ‘John is stouter than he was last year.'

109. The Superlative‡ Degree of an adjective is that form of it which shows that a certain thing, or group of things, possesses the attribute denoted by the adjective in a greater degree than any other among several, of which it is one. It is formed by adding st or est to the adjective in the positive degree; as, greatest, largest. Thus, of several boys in a group, we may say, 'John is the tallest. Of the countries of Europe we may say, 'England is the wealthiest.

110. Many adjectives, from the nature of the ideas which they express, cannot have comparative and superlative degrees; as, right, left, wrong, square, triangular. Sometimes, however, adjectives are used in a sense which falls short of their strict meaning, and then they admit of degrees of comparison which would not otherwise be tolerable. For example, extreme, perfect, chief; as when we say, 'This specimen is more perfect than that; "He died in the extremest misery;' 'The chiefest among ten thousand.'

112. The superlative degree is sometimes used in an absolute sense, when the thing spoken of is not compared with the rest of a class, but is regarded as possessing a certain quality in a very high degree, as 'Hail, divinest Melancholy' (Milton). In modern English most is usually prefixed to the positive to express this sense.

The word thing means generally whatever we can think about, i.e., make a distinct object of thought, including persons, as well as what we commonly denominate things.

+ In Anglo-Saxon the suffix was -er or -or; in declension dropping the vowel, and inflected according to the weak declension. The letter is the softened form of a sibilant. In Gothic the suffix is -iza.

Superlative (Lat. superlativus, from superlatus) means 'lifting up above.' The superla tive degree lifts the thing that it is applied to above all the rest of the group.

? In Anglo-Saxon the termination was -est or -ost. In early English writers we still find comparatives and superlatives in -or and -ost.

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113. Spenser even uses the comparative absolutely, as 'Help thy weaker (= too weak) novice' (F.Q. Prol.)

IRREGULAR COMPARISON.

114. In the case of some adjectives, the degrees of comparison are marked by what are commonly termed irregular forms. These are the following:

115. Adjectives of more than two syllables, and most adjectives of two syllables, do not allow of the formation of comparative and superlative degrees by means of suffixes. But the same ideas are denoted by prefixing the adverbs more and most to the adjective in the positive degree. Thus, we say, Virtuous, more virtuous, most virtuous; Learned, more learned, most learned.

* In Anglo-Saxon bet is a comparative adverb, the comparative suffix having been thrown off, as it was in leng (longer), ma (more), and some others. Best = betest, is a superlative formed from a comparative. The words good, little, much, many, and bad are not etymologically connected with the words used as their comparatives and superlatives.

Much is the modern form of the Anglo-Saxon micel 'great' (compare uéyas and mag-nus). In old English moe (A S. ma) is found for more when referring to number.

Worse (from A.S. weor 'bad') has the original s of the comparative suffix. (See note on ? 108).

§ Later and latest refer to time; latter and last refer (though not exclusively) to position in a series. Last = latest.

=

The modern positive near is in reality the comparative of the A. S. neah nigh, which was both an adjective and an adverb. The three degrees should properly be nigh, near, next.

Elder and eldest are formed from old (A. S. eald), being the modern forms of yldra and yldest. Elder is now used to denote not so much greater age, as the relation of precedence which is a consequence of being older. Elder cannot now be followed by than.

**These words are formed upon a false analogy. From the adverb forth are derived further and furthest. But there being no adjective in the positive degree except far, further and furthest were corrupted into farther and farthest, and set down as derivatives from far.

116. The dissyllabic adjectives which do admit of suffixes of comparison are those ending in -y (merry, merrier, merriest; holy, holier, holiest); in -er (as tender, tenderer, tenderest); those in -ble (as able, abler, ablest); those which have the accent on the last syllable, as polite, politer, politest; severe, severer, severest; and some others, as pleasanter, pleasantest; narrower, narrowest.

117. In Anglo-Saxon there were two superlative suffixes, -ost or -est and -ema (compare the Greek toros in μéyiotos, and the Latin -imus in simill-imus, intimus, &c.). There are a few superlatives in English ending in -most: hindmost, topmost, inmost, foremost, uttermost.† Most of these are derived from adverbs. They are not compounds of the adverb most, but double superlatives, formed by the use of both terminations -ema and -ost. Former appears to be a comparative formed from the A.S. superlative forma.

118. Double comparatives and superlatives are common in the older writers as 'worser,'' more kinder,' 'more braver,' 'the most unkindest cut of all' (Shaksp.); 'the most straitest sect,' &c.

ARTICLE.

119. The Articles§ are often classed as a separate part of speech, but they belong in reality to the class of Adjectives.

120. There are two Articles, the Indefinite Article an or a, and the Definite Article the.

121. The Indefinite Article an is another form of the numeral one (A.S. án). It indicates that we are speaking either of some one, or of any one of the things for which the noun is a name, as, 'I saw an old man'; 'A child (ie., any child) should obey its parents.'

122. The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound or mute h, as an apple, an heir.

Euphony is the guide in this matter. The suffixes er and est were more freely employed by the earlier writers. Thus e.g. we find unhopefullest in Shakspere, honourablest in Bacon, virtuousest in Fuller, &c. In poetical diction comparatives and superlatives in er and est are allowed which are not usual in ordinary prose, such as divinest, perfectest, properest.

+ The r in uttermost, innermost, &c., is merely phonetic, not formative. In Anglo-Saxon we find hindemest, æftemest, innemest, foremest, &c.

It is likely enough, however, that some of these words (as hithermost, middlemost, undermost, topmost) were really formed under the false conception that most was the superlative adverb. We even find the comparative more in the double comparative further

more.

§ Latin articulus, ‘a joint.'

An drops the n,* and becomes a before words beginning with a consonant, the aspirate h, or the letter u when the sound of y is put before the u in pronunciation, as A man, a horse, a yellow ball, a useful book. But an is kept before the aspirate when the accent is not upon the first syllable of the word, as an historical event.'

123. In some expressions what is now commonly regarded as the indefinite article a was originally a weakened form of the preposition on (= in). Thus Twice a week was 'tuwa on wucan' (Luke xviii. 12. See Koch, ii. p. 85; Morris, Hist. Outl.)

124. The Definite Article the is used to define or mark the particular individual or individuals that we are speaking of.

125. The definite article the is a weakened form of the old demonstrative se, seo, that, which in Anglo-Saxon, besides its ordinary force, had the weaker force of the article. Afterwards, se and seo were supplanted by the forms be (the) and peo (theo).

126. The definite article is used in English before significant nouns.

(A) It is used to mark out or individualise out of all the things usually denoted by the name, that one to which attention is directed. It does this by directing attention to some attributive adjunct by which the individual is distinguished. Thus, when we say, the black horse, the points attention to the adjective black. When we say, the Queen of England, the points to the adjunct of England. It also indicates that particular thing with which we have some obvious connexion or concern as when we say, the sun, the moon, the Queen, the City, the street, the Church, &c.

(B) The word the is used to show that one individual is taken as the representative of its class, as when we talk of the lion, the eagle, or to show that we are speaking of the whole of the class to which the name belongs, as when we speak of the stars, the English, the good, the Alps.

PRONOUN.

127. A Pronoun (Latin pro, 'for,' nomen, 'name') is a word used instead of a noun, as when the speaker, instead of naming himself or the person to whom he is speaking, says, 'I am rich'; 'You said so'; or uses a demonstrative pronoun to avoid the repetition of a noun that has already been used, as 'John has come home, he is very tired,' instead of 'John is very tired.'

* In old English the form a or o is found for an (as ae in Scotch for ane) even when used as a numeral. We still say 'A day or two'; 'They are both of a size,' i.e., of one size.

CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS.

128. Pronouns are divided into two classes, Substantive Pronouns and Adjective Pronouns.

129. Strictly speaking, no word should be called a Pronoun unless it is a substantive. But it is usual to include under this head certain demonstrative adjectives which are very often used substantively. These bear the somewhat contradictory name of Adjective Pronouns. When they are attached to substantives which are expressed, as this man, each time, they should be called Demonstrative Adjectives, or Adjectives of Relation.

The Nominative Case I is always written with a Capital letter.

1.- PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

131. The Personal Pronouns consist of

1. The Personal Pronoun of the First Person.

2. The Personal Pronoun of the Second Person.

132. The Personal Pronoun of the First Person is the