427. Examples.-"If the prisoner committed the crime, he deserves death. If he did not commit it, all the witnesses swore falsely." "If he is at home, I shall see him." "If your letter is finished, bring it to me.

428. In like manner concessive clauses beginning with though or although, which relate to what actually is or was the case, have the indicative mood; as, "Though he was there, I did not see him."

430. (B.) Suppositions of the second kind treat an event or a state of things as a mere conception of the mind. In suppositions of this class, the subjunctive mood is employed.

431. A supposition which is contrary to some fact, present or past, is necessarily a mere conception of the mind, and therefore the subjunctive mood is used.

Examples." If he were present (which he is not), I would speak to
him."
"If our horse had not fallen down (which he did), we should
not have missed the train."

432. In old-fashioned English and in poetry we also find the past perfect subjunctive used in the consequent clause, instead of the secondary form (or conditional perfect); as, “I had fainted unless I had believed to see the goodness of the Lord."

433. Clauses expressing a wish contrary to the fact have also the subjunctive mood. Thus, "I wish that he were here (which he is not)."

434. When we make a supposition with regard to the future, and state its consequence, as a mere conception of the mind, the subjunctive mood must be used in both clauses.

Examples.- -"If he were rewarded, he
"If he went (or should go,
speaking to me, I should be grieved.'

vere.

would be encouraged to perseor were to go) away without "If he lost (or should lose, or

were to lose) his money, he would never be happy again."

In suppositions the conjunction if is often omitted. E.g., "Had I known this (ie., If I had known this), I would not have come."

435. Clauses beginning with that often have a limiting or defining (ie., an adverbial) force in relation to an adjective, as " He was vexed that you did not come ; "I am sure that he did it."

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

436. A compound sentence is one which consists of two or more co-ordinate principal sentences, joined together by co-ordinative conjunctions, as "He is happy, but I am not"; "They toil not, neither do they spin."

437. Co-ordinate clauses are grammatically independent of each other, whereas every subordinate clause is a component part of some

other clause or sentence.

438. The co-ordinate members of a compound sentence may themselves be complex sentences, as (a), "I will tell your brother when I see him, but (b), I do not think that he will arrive this week."

once.

N.B.-The conjunction itself does not enter into the construction of the clause which it introduces.

CONTRACTED SENTENCES.

66

439. When co-ordinate sentences contain either the same subject, the same predicate, the same object, the same complement, or the same adverbial adjunct to the predicate, it often happens that the portion which they have in common is expressed only In this case the sentence is said to be contracted. Examples." Neither I nor you have seen that," i.e., " Neither I [have seen that,] nor you have seen that." "He loved not wisely, but too well"; i.e., “He loved not wisely, but [he loved] too well." Here the predicate is expressed only once. "Religion purifies and ennobles the soul"; ¿.e., “Religion purifies [the soul] and [religion] ennobles the soul." Here the subject and the object are expressed only once.

66 He is either drunk or mad"; i.e., "Either he is drunk or [he is] mad." Here the subject and the verb of incomplete predication is are expressed only once.

"He advances slowly but surely"; i.e., "He advances slowly, but [he advances] surely." Here the common subject and predicate are expressed only once.

"He reads and writes well"; i.e., "He reads [well] and [he] writes well." Here the common subject and the common adverbial adjunct are expressed only once.

440. Contracted sentences ought always to be so constructed, that when arranged without conjunctions, so that what is common to both or all is placed before or after what is not common, the common and separate portions, when read off continuously, make complete sense. Thus, "Religion purifies and ennobles the soul," may be written

Religion purifies
{

}

the soul;

ennobles

and complete sentences are obtained when the parts that are common, and written once, are read with each of the separate portions in sucession. So, "He gave me not only some good advice, but also a sovereign," may be arranged thus

He gave me

not only his blessing

{also a sovereign.

"He possesses greater talents, but is less esteemed than his brother,"

He {possesses greater talents } than his brother.

is

If we take such a sentence as, "Man never is but always to be blest,' and subject it to this test, we see in a moment that it is faulty

441. We frequently find sentences side by side, which have a connexion with each other as regards their sense and use, but have no grammatical link of connexion between them. For example--" I came. I saw. I conquered." "Fear God. Honour the king." "I was robbed of all my money; for that reason I was unable to proceed." "I believed, therefore have I spoken." Such sentences as those placed side by side in the above examples may be called collateral sentences.

442. A proper consideration of the nature of collateral sentences will enable us materially to thin the usual list of conjunctions. A word is not a conjunction because it refers us to something that precedes. Simple demonstratives do this. Such words as therefore, consequently, likewise, also (i.e., all so = just in that manner), nevertheless, notwithstanding, are not conjunctions, but demonstrative adverbs.

ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES.

443. Elliptical sentences differ from contracted sentences in the following respect :-In contracted sentences a certain portion which is common to the sentences is expressed only once in one of them, and has to be repeated in the others. In elliptical sentences, the part to be supplied in one clause, although suggested by what is expressed in the other, is not necessarily exactly the same in form. Moreover, contracted sentences or clauses are always co-ordinate; an elliptical clause is usually a subordinate clause, the portion to be supplied being suggested by the principal clause; as, "He is taller than I," ie., "than I am tall"; "This does not cost so much as that.' .e., "as that costs much."

SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX.

444. [Most of these rules, having been already stated in preceding parts of this work, are here only referred to, that the pupil may have the opportunity of studying them afresh in connexion with each other].

CONCORD.

445. In inflected languages (like Latin, German, or English in its earliest stage) concord means the use of those grammatical forms which are congruous with each other.

446. A verb must have that grammatical form which shows that it is of the same number and person as its subject.

An adjective must have that grammatical form which shows that it is of the same gender, number, and case as the noun or pronoun to which it belongs.

A relative pronoun must have that grammatical form which shows that it is of the same gender and number as its antecedent.

447. In modern English, grammatical inflexions have been to a great extent dispensed with. We have therefore very little of the above kinds of concord. But as regards concord expressed by form we still have the rule that a verb must agree with its subject in number and person, and that the demonstrative pronoun of the Third Person must agree in gender and number with the noun for which it stands. If the term agreement is used for anything beyond this, it can only denote congruity of use, that is, sameness in the grammatical relations which might be represented by form, but are not. To say, for example, that in "The woman who was hurt has recovered," 'who,' agrees in gender with ‘woman,' means no more than that the pronoun, as used in that sentence, represents a female person.

SYNTAX OF NOUNS.

448. A noun in the nominative case may be used

1. As the subject of a sentence (§ 349).

2. In apposition to a noun or pronoun in the nominative case ($ 362, 2).

3. As the complement of an Intransitive or Passive Verb of Incomplete Predication (§ 393).

4. As a Nominative Absolute (§ 370, 5).

5. As a Nominative of Address (§ 66).

449. A noun in the possessive case must be attached to some

other noun, to which it forms an Attributive Adjunct* (§ 362, 3), and on which it is sometimes said to depend (see §§ 67, 362). This noun is sometimes omitted when it can readily be supplied in thought, as "I bought this at Smith's [shop]," "We went to St. Paul's [church]."

When something belongs to two or more persons in common, the inflexion of the possessive case is placed only after the last of the nouns that denote the possessors, when they are very closely connected, as 'Smith, Brown, and Robinson's shop'; 'Liddell and Scott's lexicon'; 'In William and Mary's reign.'

A complex name has the possessive inflexion at the end (§ 72).

450. A noun in the objective case may be used

1. As the direct object of a transitive verb (§ 366).

2. As the indirect object of a transitive verb, whether active
or passive (§ 370, 4).

3. In apposition to a noun or pronoun in the objective case.
4. As the complement of a transitive verb of incomplete predi-
cation (§ 395).

5. In various Adverbial Adjuncts (§§ 370-372).

6. As a Cognate Objective (§ 371).

7. After Prepositions.

SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.

451. The attributive and the predicative use of Adjectives are explained in §§ 360, 391. As regards adjectives used substantively and adjectives which have become substantives, see §§ 96—98.

452. Adjectives (including participles) sometimes relate to the substantive which is implied in a possessive pronoun, as "The Lord lighteneth both their eyes" (i.e., the eyes of both of them); “For all our sakes," &c.

453. The Indefinite Article an or a should be repeated before each of a series of nouns standing for different things, as "I saw a horse, a cow, and a pig in the stable," unless the things are so closely connected with each other as to form a sort of compound group; as He built a coachhouse and stable ; " "Give me a cup and saucer." "A black

* A noun in the possessive case, however, does not cease to be a noun. It does not become an adjective because its form makes it partake of the functions of an adjective. In 'John's father' 'John's' is a noun in the possessive case, as in Caesaris uxor,' Caesaris' is a noun in the genitive case. Similarly a noun in the objective case, with or without a preposition, is often an Adverbial Adjunct (like a noun in the dative or ablative in Latin). But it is going too far to say that the noun in the objective, dative, or ablative is an adverb.