besides these two gases, atmospheric air also contains a small portion of carbonic acid gas, generally estimated at 1 in 100, but Mr. Dalton has shewn that it does not constitute above 1 in 1000. Seeing, then, that the bulk of atmospheric air is composed of two distinct gases, of such opposite qualities, and that nitrogen gas forms threefourths of the whole, perhaps it may be asked, for what useful purpose can such a vast bulk of nitrogen gas serve, which, in a separate state, is incapable of either supporting combustion, or animal life?-A moment's consideration will be sufficient to convince us, that all things have been so formed and arranged as was most likely to promote the happiness of man; and perhaps nothing is better calculated to awaken us to a sense of the unerring wisdom of the divine mind, than the study of chemistry; a science which, to be admired, requires only to be known. nitrogen gas, and one part of oxygen gas. The mixture will be found to exhibit all the properties of common air; it will support combustion and animal life in an equality with atmospheric air. It enters into the composition of all animal substances. It is not fatal to vegetable life. for plants thrive and even flourish in it. When simply mixed with hydrogen gas, it undergoes no perceptible change, but under certain circumstances it combines with hydrogen, and constitutes the well-known compound called volatile alkali, or ammonia. United with oxygen in different proportions, it forms, besides atmospheric air, the gaseous oxyde of nitrogen, or nitrous oxyde, nitrous gas, and nitric acid. Atmospheric air consists of about 3 parts of nitrogen and 1 of oxygen. Nitrous oxyde consists of nitrogen, 2 parts; oxygen, 1 part. Nitrous gas consists of nitrogen, 1 part; oxygen 3 parts. Nitric acid, or aquafortis, consists of nitrogen, 1 part; oxygen, 4 parts. The production of nitric acid Had a larger quantity of oxygen by a combination of these two gases, gas entered into the composition of will be evident from the following ex- atmospheric air, it is true it would periment, mentioned by several wri- have proved more stimulant, and we ters on chemistry: should have enjoyed a more free reProcure a glass tube, of about one-spiration; consequently, the circulasixth part of an inch in diameter; close one end of the tube with a cork, through which passes a small wire, both ends of which are furnished with a metal ball. The tube is now to be filled with mercury, and its open end immersed in that fluid. As much of a mixture composed of 87 parts of oxygen gas, and 13 parts of nitrogen gas, as will fill three inches, are to be in troduced into the glass tube, and a number of electric explosions are to be made through the mixture, by means of the wire in the cork. The mixture will gradually become diminished, and in its place a quantity of nitric acid will be found. This gas is capable of dissolving a small quantity of carbon. It also dissolves small quantities of sulphur and phosphorus; with the former producing a very fetid gas, called sulphureted nitrogen gas, with the latter phosphureted nitrogen gas. tion of blood would have been greatly accelerated, but the whole system of vessels must have been inevitably destroyed by over excitement; and combustion, now a regular and beautiful process, have become a most insurmountable evil, insomuch, as the united efforts of mankind would prove abortive in putting the least stop to the destructive ravages of bodies in a state of combustion. Before we close this paper, perhaps it will be necessary to give the origin and signification of the term gas. Gas, or gaz, is derived from the Ġerman word Gascht:-an eruption of wind. It was first introduced into chemistry by Van Helmont. By this word, chemists denote a permanently elastic aëriform fluid, distinguishable from vapour in not being condensible by the greatest degree of cold with which we are acquainted. Gases are solid substances, rendered perma gen gas does not exist in animals, but nitrogen in a solid state, which is converted into gas by addition of caloric, or the matter of heat. We have now shewn that atmosphe-nently aëriform by caloric; thus nitroric air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen gas, and have also mentioned, the specific gravity of each of these gases, as determined by some of our most accurate experimentalists; but (To be continued.) A LECTURE ON GEOLOGY, Read to the Philosophical Society, at *** on Friday, October 5th, 1821.-By Deluvianus. "Nullius in Verba Magistri." know of that sublime matter may be expressed in a few words: In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth,-like Moliere's Medecin malgre lui (who, affirming that the heart was on the right side, was reminded that it was commonly thought THE ancients understood by cosmo- to be on the left) he will exclaim, “Ah! gony, the creation of the whole mate- oui, c'etoit ainsi autrefois, mais aurial universe. But geology is a term jourdhui nous avons change tout cela" which is of course restricted to that-Why, yes, formerly indeed it was knowledge which we possess of the thought so, but we have of late changformation of that globe "which we ed all that.+ inherit," and on which we subsist.It is obvious, that we cannot pretend to observe or draw any accurate analogy of the nature of the internal and subterranean parts of our earth; for no miner has succeeded in descending into the bowels of the earth more than a 30,000th part of its diameter; and if the earth be represented by an orange as to its form, we cannot be said to have penetrated below its rind. Geology, therefore, cannot promise more than an investigation of the former and present state of the crust, or surface of the earth. But we whose hearts are, we trust, in a better sense, on the right side, shall not venture to assail the most authentic and venerated truths, for the sake of maintaining a few dashing and sparkling hypotheses, which at best are founded on a dark and abstruse induction, on vague and uncertain analogies, without those connecting links which are essentially necessary to give them the force of facts, and the authority of truths. Let a single instance of the futility and absurdity of such sweeping speculations be a caution to us of theorizing from a few straggling and unconnected facts. To use an expression of Lord Verulam's, it is as absurd as the attempt to build a ship, without more materials than the rowing pins of a boat.‡ What were the physical causes which gave the first impulse to material atoms, and coerced them from an heterogeneous and chaotic mass, into those interesting forms which the earth presents, we know nothing, absolutely nothing more than that there Mr. Brydone, a gentleman of reis a creation-at once sublime and spectability, made a statement that beautiful! But, whether these form- seemed to cast into shadow the accreations, which deeply excite our curi-dited belief, that the world was only osity, were called into existence by a few thousand years old:-He states the omnipotent fiat, independently of that, strata of lava requires several those laws and principles which now hundred years to be mellowed and regulate material particles; or owe softened into vegetative soil. And their being to the affinities and kindred hence, from this bold and suppositious attractions, to the curdling and intes- datum, he proceeds to apply the strata tine workings of substances obedient of lava ejected from some volcanoes, to the natural laws which now affect as chronometers of the antiquity of them; is a matter too high, too lofty, the globe. But most unfortunately for human scrutiny. At least, in the for this brilliant hypothesis, the city infancy of geological science, too of Pompeii, which was engulphed by much care cannot be taken, lest, in an eruption from Vesuvius, in the the wantonness of unlicensed conjec- year 79 of the Christian Æra, is coture, we invade, with hostile step, vered by such a number of strata, as those sacred and hallowed inclosures, would, according to his mode of calwhich, unlike these extravagant and culation, carry back the date of the prophane speculations, are entrenched destruction of that city several thouand fortified by a barrier of divine and sand years!-Procul este profani! unerring truth. Talk to one of your geological and geognostical cognoscenti on the subject of creation, and tell him all we On swelling columns heav'd, the pride of art! an inch around, With blind presumption bold, should dare to Has swept at once the unbounded scheme of St. Pierre observes, that on applying himself to be the historian of nature, so lacking were his abilities, so scanty his stores, that he compared himself to a child who had made a hole in the sand with a shell, as a reservoir for the waters of the ocean.* The operations of nature are vast and magnificent: the whole is too mighty for the human intellect; but we may be permitted to admire, to examine parts, rather to follow in her footsteps, than rudely to approach her temple. The study of Geology may be turned to great practical advantage, for minerals have always a certain relative position and connection in the earth.† Hence certain substances indicate proximity of others, which may be of immense use to those, whose estates abound in metallic veins; and this knowledge may also save fruitless, laborious, and expensive search, when it appears from the geological information presented by the rocks and strata, their expectations could not be realized. well understood, propose to premise an explanation of some of the more important terms, and which are more frequently used. Some peculiar words are absolutely necessary, to avoid much tedious circumlocution. Primitive Rocks. Those formed prior to men and animals. Transition.-Those formed during the transit from the chaotic to the habitable state. Floetz. Those having horizontal or flat strata. Alluvial formations.-As the term suggests, from fragments worn down by attrition. Exuvia Reliquiae. Debris or Detribus.-The ruin, or wreck of rocks. The remains of organized beings, as shell-fish, found in transition, floetz, and alluvial. Strata.-Layers; broad extended tabular masses. Zoophytes. Organization, semianimal, semi-vegetable. Lithophytes.--Vegetables found in a fossil and petrified state. We shall begin by enumerating the varieties of rocks and mountainous elevations.-They are divided into, primitive, or those which had existence prior to the creation of animals Lord Bacon's maxim, "knowledge and vegetables; which fact is supportis power," is applicable to this sub-ed by their being destitute of organic ject; for, says the late President of the Board of Agriculture, "a knowledge of our subterranean wealth, would be the means of furnishing greater sources of opulence to the country, than the acquisition of the mines of Mexico or Peru." The form of the earth seems, like that of other planets, to be affected by revolving on its own axis, which enlarged its diameter at the equator. One would have supposed that if this motion had been imparted when the planet was in a state of fusion, as some say, mountain ranges far more lofty and extensive than those of the southern hemisphere, would have resulted from the exertion of the centrifugal forces, cre the earth had become solidified. There will necessarily be many terms made use of in the following brief and elementary paper on Geology, which have a restricted and technical meaning. To avoid perplexity, and to facilitate my being L'etudes de la nature. + Encycl. Britan. remains. 2d. Into transition rocks; those whose formation took place when the earth was in transitû from its chaotic to its habitable state. 3d. Secondary, stratified, or floetz rocks; those which have a flat or horizontal direction. 4th. Volcanic rocks. 5th. Alluvial, viz. those which swell up from the destruction of other rocks, by the action of tempests, currents, &c. We will consider them in detail.PRIMITIVE, are-Granite; Gneiss ; Micaceous Schistus; Argillaceous Ditto; Primitive Limestone; Primitive Trap; Serpentine; Porphyry ; Srenite; Topaz Rock; Quartz Rock; Primitive Flinty Slate; Primitive Gypsum; White Stone. Transition: SECONDARY ROCKS. The primitive mountains, are those massive and colossal columns which Q support the fabric of the earth. They rear their peaking heads high above the clouds, and their summits are mantled with perpetual snow: they traverse vast continents, separate the basins of rivers from each other, and form the skeleton or frame-work of our earth. The primitive rocks, containing no relics of organized remains, are crystalline, supposed to have been formed by chemical precipitations without mechanical deposit. They are not stratified, but have various forms; tabular, spheroidal, columnar. They soar above the loftiest summits of other mountains ; attemperate the heats of torrid regions, by the refrigerating influence of the eternal snow that encompasses their tops; abound in veins of rich metal, and dip deeply into the bosom of the earth; and on their sides, rocks of a later origin and minor size repose. Granite, in its highest elevation, assumes a peaky form, and stretches itself into rugged piles. Humboldt, and others, seem to make it appear, that the matter which gives rise to volcanic fires, lies far below the granite rock. Granite has never been seen higher than the elevated summit of Mont. Blanc, a mountain 15,680 feet above the level of the sea, and more than five times higher than any mountain in England or Wales. From the difficulty of ascent, 18 hours are required for gaining its summit, and this time must be laboriously and incessantly employed, exclusively of the periods for refreshment and repose. On the second day of Saussure's laborious attempt to gain the height of Mont Blanc, he passed the night on a vast plain of snow, 3100 yards above the level of the sea, at an elevation considerably higher than that of the Peak of Teneriffe. The barometer stood at 14 inches. The upper parts of Mont Blanc are candied with perpetual snow, and it is only at the fissures, and perpendicular clefts, that the bare rock is visible; but here he was enabled to gratify his utmost curiosity. He at first believed, from what he saw below, that the plates of granite were folded round the peaks like the leaves of an artichoke; but now his eye could pene Bakewell's Geology. +Jamieson's Geognosy, trate into the interior, he perceived his mistake, for they were composed of vertical plates, parallel to each other, and were the same throughout its whole extent.* Chimboraso is one mile and 160 yards higher than Mont Blanc; and although, according to Humboldt, the general arrangement of the Andes consists of granite, gneiss, mica, slate, &c. yet those immense upper projections seem to be of volcanic origin, being composed of basalt and porphyry; which, says the same celebrated naturalist, are arranged in the form of regular and immense columns, which strike the eye of the traveller like the ruins of enormous castles lifted into the sky. Mountain rocks are distinguished from others by their vast magnitude, but even this distinction is relative; for Tereniffe, or Mont Blanc, would be immense mountains, compared with those of Britain; while they sink almost to hills when compared with those of Thibet, and the loftiest of the Andes. The compound rock-granite occurs in China, Van Dieman's Land, Africa, in Bengal, Brazil, Mexico, and Canada, and in all these countries has the same character; so that the geognostic character of one is that of all, and hence general inferences may be drawn, applicable to the whole crust of the earth.† The principal European mountains are granite; as those in Scandinavia, the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Carpathean mountains. Those of Africa, are, as far as hitherto known, of the same solid and indestructible substance; as are those of Upper Egypt,the Atlas mountains, and those about the Cape of Good Hope; whilst in Asia it gives origin to a large part of the Altaic and Uralian mountain ranges. Subterranean sounds, resembling those of the organ, have been said by travellers to be heard about sunrise by persons sleeping upon the rocks of granite. The Missionaries call them, according to Humboldt, "Laxas de Musica."‡ That sensible traveller accounts for the phenomena, by supposing that it is caused by the circulation of currents of air under these shelves of rock. The ear of a person being in contact with the stone, may + Humboldt's Researches. § Thompson's Annals. perceive the pulses communicated to the stone; and he farther conjectures that the elastic spangles of mica contribute to modify the tones. He conceives that this may have been noticed of some rock of the Thebaid, and that this natural concert may have given the hint for the sublime jugglery of the priests, in the statue of Memnon, who was supposed to have been rendered vocal by the radiant inlluence of the rosy-fingered aurora. But the musical Memnon has laid his harp upon the willows, since his reluctant removal from his natal skies. Veins of Granite have been found running to a considerable extent in clay slate, at Tousehole, in Cornwall. Dr. Thompson,§ in the Annals of Philosophy, describes them as varying from one foot and half, to nearly an inch in size; and this fact would suggest, that, either granite or schist were of contemporaneous origin, or that the granite was once in a state of fusion, and that fissures had been made by fire in the upper rocks, wherein these veins have been impelled to traverse. Dr. Thompson has, also, observed the same fact at St. Michael's Mount, the most remarkable spot in Cornwall in a mineralogical point of view, and from the appearances of its arrangement, it would seem that in this instance, as well as in some others in Norway, observed by Von Bach, the granite is not a primitive, but a transition rock, and therefore posterior in its formation. I shall allow Dr. Thompson himself to relate what he observed.* Annals. (To be continued.) SLAVERY IN SURINAM. A monster, in the form of a lady, who had more slaves than humanity, had an occasion one day to be rowed, by some of these unfortunate wretches, to a place somewhat distant from her home. In the fore part of the boat sat a female slave, with her infant in her arms; which, through indisposition or crossness, she was unable to still. The lady, though at the greatest possible distance from the infant, affected to be so annoyed with its cries, that she directed the mother to bring the child to her, and she would try to make it quiet. The unsuspecting mother accordingly gave her the child, and retired to the fore part of the boat. The lady no sooner took possession of the babe, than she dipped its head and body in the water, holding it by one leg, while the men rowed her along, without daring to expostulate. In this state she continued her murderous hand overboard, until she found that life had departed, when, with much indifference, she let the body go on the stream, The frantic mother, who had witnessed this act of deliberate murder, without daring to complain, could bear her smothered feelings no longer. She gave a horrid shriek, and plunged into the water to die with her babe. From the accomplishment of this purpose, however, she was deterred by the boatmen, who, directed by the lady, exerted themselves and saved her life. For this attempt, however, on coming on shore, she was sentenced to receive two hundred lashes, and actually underwent the punishment. Of the lady's conduct no notice was taken. None but the negroes were witnesses of the transaction, and by law they were disqualified to give evidence. OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE AND CHARACTER OF EMANUEL KANT. Translated from the German. WHOSOEVER knows Kant's critical writings, and has penetrated into their spirit, admires the original deep thinking mind of the author; who, unsatisfied with all the philosophical systems of former times, and animated, through the study of Hume's works, made at last his own way through the labyrinths of dogma and scepticism, subjected the power of ratiocination itself to a severe critic, found and limited the boundaries of human understanding, and endeavoured to erect on that ground a new edifice of philosophy, which, for the victory of truth, was to bid defiance to all attacks of reasoning led astray. It is to be lamented, that age overtook this great thinker, and prevented him from finishing the explanation of his own system. His last work, which, according to his statement, should have been the completion of |