swear allegiance to Ferdinand the Seventh, as soon as she is put in possession of her rights, and has sent deputies to the 'cortes.

8thly. That Spanish America shall acknowledge the sovereignty possessed by the cortes, as representing Ferdinand the Seventh.

"9thly. That Spanish America shall pledge herself to maintain a mutual and friendly intercourse with the peninsula.

"10thly. That Spanish America shall oblige herself to co-operate with the cortes and the allies of Spain to preserve the peninsula from the power of France.

11thly. That Spanish America shall pledge herself to send liberal succour to the peninsula for the continuance of the war.'" In this form the conditions were taken into consideration by the cortes, and debated upon with closed doors. Several days were consumed in the discussion, on the termination of which, the proposed mediation was rejected, principally, it was averred, because the interference of Britain had not been solicited by the provinces, and that her views in tendering it were selfish and sinister.

And, in truth, we do not think that the cortes, in this instance, were much in the wrong. The conduct of the British ministry with respect to the great and interesting question of South-American independence, must, we think, be allowed on all hands to be sufficiently equivocal. That it was ever animated by a higher impulse than mere expediency suggested, we can scarcely bring ourselves to credit. That it ever nourished within its bosom the noble and generous wish to foster the budding liberties of the colonies, and to stand forth as their protector in the fierce and magnanimous strife which has ensued; that it was sincerely and anxiously desirous to stretch forth a hand in their cause, or to employ the slightest portion of the immense resources of Britain in strengthening the arm of transatlantic freedom, would, we fear, be a delusiona pleasing one, we grant, but still a delusion. It is not fitting the dignity of rational beings to be imposed upon by highsounding names and unrealized professions. Truth and candour are the first qualifications of a public writer, and in that capacity we conceive it our duty to declare that we do not discern in the negotiations of the British government, either with the provinces, or old Spain, any traces of a liberal and beneficent policy. When, indeed, the mother-country seemed to be the firm and fast ally of France, it suited the views of the British cabinet to hold out to the colonists prospects of the most flattering nature; and incitements to insurrection, and assur

ances of the most active support in any measures they might adopt for the assertion of their rights, were daily flowing from the lips of its agents. But for all this apparent magnanimity, the cause is really too clear and pesitive to allow even the most charitably disposed to doubt for a moment. To annoy France, and deprive her of part of the benefits she derived from her connexion with Spain, was unquestionably the principal stimulus with the cabinet of St. James. But as soon as the alliance between the two countries

is broken up, and Ferdinand, through the regency established during his absence, becomes the friend of England, all this enthusiasm vanishes, and "His Britannic Majesty has strong reasons for hoping that the" South-Americans "will acknowledge the authority of the regency of Spain."* Nay, so warm does the friendship between the two kings become in a short time, that in case the colonies reject the terms proposed by the English commissioners, his said majesty is perfectly willing to empley those very arms which were formerly engaged to support the independence of the provinces, in assisting “ Spain to subdue them by force." Now this, we think, is very amusing, and affords an interesting and, indeed, beautiful specimen of that happy flexibility in politics and principle which is the high and precious endowment of Legitimacy-a neat, pretty little word, by the way, and elegantly expressive of the host of blessings which the genius of its inventors has brought upon the old world, and which their benevolence would fain introduce into the new.

The declaration of the Venezuelian congress was soon followed by more active proceedings. While the mediation of Britain was in a course of discussion,

"The arms of the revolutionary government had obtained important advantages in the new continent. They possessed that whole territory which comprised Buenos Ayres, Venezuela, and New-Grenada, with the exception of a few fortified places and some provinces; and the Mexican patriots obtained possession of many places in the interior of Mexico, under Morelos, Rayon, Victoria, and others. Some plan for revolt had been discovered in the capital of Mexico, and even Lima had been threatened with insurrection."

The war proceeded with alternate success till the return of Ferdinand te Spain, who,

"In his decrce of the 4th of June, 1814, announced to the South-Americans his re

* See lord Liverpool's Letter to general Layard, governor of Curacca (June 29, 1810).

turn to his country, and ordered that they should lay down their arms. Soon after an army was equipped in Cadiz, and Morillo appointed its commander. Ten thousand men chosen from the best troops in Spain an armament such as had never before been seen on the coast of Venezuela-appeared before Carupano in the middle of April, 1815. Alarm was now spread among those who had been fighting for the cause of independence. All hopes of reconciliation were abandoned, and the revolt in Spanish America, against the authority of Ferdinand the Seventh, dates from this period.

"From Carupano, general Morillo proceeded to Margarita, from thence to Caraccas, and in the following August he besieged Carthagena. The dissentions between Bolivar and Castillo, both commanders of the South-American forces, had lessened the means of defence which Carthagena possessed, and even deprived it of supplies of provisions. The inhabitants, nevertheless, supported by near two thousand reguJar troops, prepared themselves for a vigorous resistance. The only attack upon the town, or rather upon Lapopa, which commands the town, was made the 11th of November, when the assailants were repulsed. Provisions, however, began to fail, and the vessels which approached the harbour were taken by the Spanish ships of war which blockaded the port. More than three thousand persons died actually of famine. To attempt a longer resistance was vain. The 5th of December, 1815, the governor and garrison of Carthagena evacuated the place, and the following morning the king's troops

entered.

"In possession of Carthagena, general

Morillo was enabled to conquer New-Gre

nada, which his army did in the following manner:-Calzada, with part of Morillo's forces left at Caraccas, invaded the provinces of Pamplona and Tunja; another division penetrated through the provinces of Antioquia and Popayan; and the commander in chief went up the river Magda lena, nearly as far as Sanbartolomè. Part of his troops proceeded up the river as far as the town of Honda; but Morillo took the road towards Ocana and Sangil, in the pro; vince of Socorro. The royal troops had many skirmishes with the independents, in which the advantage was always on the side of the king's forces. At last, the battle of Cachiri was fought, and in it fell the best of the troops and officers who had supported the congress of New-Grenada. In consequence of this defeat the congress separated, and the few remaining troops, having abandoned the scene of action, took the road of Los Llanos, commanded by the generals Cerviez and Ricante.

"General Morillo entered Santa Fè de Bogota in the month of June, 1816, and remained there till November. More than six hundred persons, of those who had composed the congress and in provincial governments, as well as the chiefs of the independent army,

were shot, hanged, or exiled; and the prisons remained juil of others who were yet waiting their fate. Among those executed were the botanists Don J. Caldas and Don J. Lozano, who had been ordered by the congress of NewGrenada to publish the works of Dr. Mutis; Don J. M. Cabal, a distinguished chymist; Don C. Torres, a man distinguished for his learning; Don J. G. Gutierrez Moreno, and Don M. R. Torices, both well known for having been entirely devoted to the cause of their country; Don Antonio Maria Palacio-fazar, Don J. M. Gutierrez, Don Miguel Pombo, D. F. A. Ulloa, and many other learned and valuable characters. The wives of persons executed or exiled by Morillo were themselves exiled too."

It would be of little interest to our readers to wade through the sanguinary details of this dreadful and murderous struggle. With the atrocities committed by the officers acting in the name of Ferdinand, we are all, unfortunately, but too familiar. In the commencement of the war, the patriots, as was to be expected, length of the contest has, in all probabiwere frequently defeated, but the very lity, been productive of the greatest advantage to them, and by inuring them to martial discipline, and the fatigues and hardships of war, ensured the ultimate and speedy triumph of as noble and animating a cause as can possibly fire the heart of man Defeat, sickness, famine, and desertion seem to have thinned the Spanish ranks to a degree that authorizes fectual hostility on the part of the royalists. the supposition of the futility of any ef We look forward to the establishment and consolidation in South-America of a system of republics, that with such an example before them as is presented by these states, bids fair to secure to their citizens all the rights, privileges, and advantages which ought to be the portion of all civilized societies. In some of their communities a regular form of governand though we shall not enter into the ment appears to be already established, discussion of the policy to be pursued by the United States with regard to the new republics, we cannot refrain from expressing our hope that the northern and southern divisions of the new world will be knit together in the closest bonds of a strict and high-principled friendship; and that as in Europe, her rulers have entered into a League for the oppression of their subjects, the free communities of America may unite in a SACRED ALLIANCE for the protection of those pure and holy principles, the assertion of which has rescued so large and fair a portion of the globe from the fangs of a base and foreign tyranny.

G.

Rafinesque.

which have lately been established in the United States, the Academy of Philadelphia, appears to have been one of the most industrious, having within a few years collected a valuable Museum of natural productions, a handsome library, a philosophical apparatus, and many important papers. Some of these last communications are now published in this volume, which may be considered as the first part of the transactions of that society. Following the example of the Philomatic Society of Paris, it has begun for the first time in our country to publish periodically such transactions in the shape of a monthly journal. This mode is peculiarly suitable to the purpose of spreading with rapidity new discoveries, and retains, at the same time, all the advantages of casual or regular volumes, into which they may be divided after a competent series is issued.

In the introduction, it is stated, that the society meant to publish a few pages whenever it appeared that materials worthy of publication should be put into its possession, without professing to make any formal periodical communications; yet, having begun in May, 1817, the journal has been continued monthly until December, when it has been interrupted after completing a volume; but with the intention of being renewed pretty soon to begin a second part.

Many of the papers introduced into this volume, are highly interesting, and contain much valuable and new matter, which we mean to take up in successive order; but before we undertake this, we shall venture some general remarks upon the whole tenor of these collective labours. The first peculiarity that surprised us on perusal, was the small number of contributors to this journal, only five names are affixed to the twenty tracts and papers included in this volume; whether no more than five members of the Academy, were able to afford materials worthy of the public eye, or whether that institution was unable or unwilling to select the papers of any other author, is immaterial in itself to the present purpose, since both circumstances, would militate severely against the capability of that society, and might invalidate more or less the respectable opinion we should have conceived of it. It had invited, in the first number of the journal, contributions from all the

correctly informed, several valuable papers, containing new discoveries, which were forwarded in compliance with that request, and in conformity to the directions given, were refused admittance in that publication. In that case an evident partiality for a few members of the society, would be thoroughly discernible : such a partiality accounts for the singularity now under notice, but ought not by any means to prevail in any periodical publication, and much less in one of the present nature. If the society could not pass a correct judgment upon the papers presented for publication, it would of course prove itself unable to conduct the task which it has assumed; but whereas it appears that it considers itself responsible for the doctrines and facts of every tract introduced and published, a very unusual responsibility indeed, it certainly follows that it ought to scrutinize, very minutely, every paper meant for publication. That it has not always complied with this necessary scrutiny, we shall have abundant proofs when we proceed to the successive investigation of the tracts already rublished: wherefore we cannot do less than express our astonishment at the assumption of such a responsibility. It is a general custom with nearly all the learned societies of Europe and America, to disclaim any collective responsibility for the tracts which they insert in their Transactions; but they leave it altogether upon the authors of each respective memoir. It would would have been advisable for the members of the Academy of Philadelphia, to have imitated that custom; but since they have thought otherwise, we shall take them upon their own ground, and consider the labours now published, as belonging to their collective capacity, and having passed the test of an accurate scrutiny.

We are exceedingly sorry that, in so doing, we shall often feel the necessity of censuring some parts of their labours, and that the inaccuracies and errors which we may notice, will reflect upon the whole Academy, many of the members of which, we are well aware, will concur with us in our remarks, and ought not to be considered as guilty of the whole, since they have probably never been consulted. Any author, even of the most consummate experience and efficient ability, is occasionally liable to commit some mistakes,

he may be deceived as to facts or misled in his conclusions; such unfortunate occurrences may be easily pardoned to an individual whose solitary studies do not always enable him to acquire all the needful concomitant information; particularly since, whenever better informed, or at any future period, that the additional information may reach him, he is able, unless swelled with the pride of error, to retract or correct any of his former erroneous assertions. But the errors of public bodies and societies, when adopted after mature deliberation and apparent scrutiny, are liable to many difficulties, wherefore they ought to be very cautious in affording their assent to any peculiar fact or doubtful consequence: since we find by experience that their pledge carries a higher degree of conviction to the minds of the illiterate and the enlightened, than any individual responsibility or personal assertion: whereupon the belief of erroneous notions and doubtful facts are propagated and increased. Experience proves likewise that these societies have generally a higher degree of pride than any single individual, and every thing that has been assumed or asserted as a doctrine by them, becomes so far incorporated with themselves, that no consideration can induce them to retract it, even if it should prove afterwards to be founded upon error, illusion, or false reasoning. We have even seen whole universities, schools and academies, presuming to foster and teach obsolete doctrines, many years after experience and the unanimous consent of the learned had proved their fallacious nature. These considerations induce us to regret that the Academy to which we are indebted for the volume before us, should have ventured to give its assent and sanction to some conclusions whereof we trust to be able to show the inaccuracy; although we do not despair that it may forbear to assume the usual pride of consolidated bodies, and adopt the more correct doctrine, which leaves every one at liberty to improve one's self, and correct what deserves correction.

We are inclined to feel that confidence, while we observe that this Academy has already shown itself favourable to the improvements introduced in zoology and botany by the French schools. In its zoological papers, which exceed by far any other, the new genera of the French zoologists are adopted, instead of the old generic divisions of Linnæus; and in the botanical papers, an attempt is made to adopt the natural method, instead of the sexual

system. These bold attempts, which are quite a novelty on this side of the Atlantic, are highly commendable, since it is time that we should no longer follow the old inaccurate track of the worshippers of Linnæus, nor borrow every sort of knowledge from that insulated spot to the northwest of Europe, where a jealous rivalry often forbids the majority of writers to adopt any improvements originating beyond the narrow boundaries of their island. How long did they struggle against the Linnæan improvements? and how long will they yet keep blind to the evidence of late improvements, is difficult to say; but we trust that the example of their stubbornness will no longer be imitated, now that the Academy of Philadelphia has partly led the way.

But when we commend and urge the necessity of the adoption of such wise improvements, as are founded upon new discoveries and reasonable principles, we do not imply, by any means, that all the Linnæan doctrines should be set aside: nothing is further from our intention; it is merely in such systematical and inaccurate parts as are rendered obsolete, that we deem useless to persist, and particularly in his zoological and sexual system, whose imperfections were incident on the actual state of knowledge at the time they were ushered, and are now become totally inadequate to fulfil the purpose for which they were intended; other superior methods having superseded them, which are more suitable to the actual state of natural knowledge. Thus very few have dared to oppose the rules introduced by Linnæus in his Philosophia Botanica, and Critica Botanica, they were the happy means of reforming the science of botany, and it is upon them that the scientific construction of that science reposes at this time, and will probably for ever: the only changes attempted have been some trifling corrections, modifications and additions; they have been since extended to zoology and other natural sciences with the greatest success. His sexual system has nothing to do with those rules: Linnæus admitted the natural method in zoology; but despaired of the practicability of its application to botany, wherefore he endeavoured to supply it by an artificial system, of which defects he was well aware, and attempted in vain to veil. Now that the national method of Botany is in successful forwardness, it must supersede altogether this uncouth and momentary system; we have no doubt that if Linnæus had lived to this day, he would have approved of this needful

change, and also of the improvements introduced in zoological classification.

Nobody would dare to propose the reestablishment of the old botanical nomenclature, when the name of a single plant was composed of ten or twenty words or names; nor ought any one to attempt to carry us back to the confusion of generic names, which was dispelled by the Linnæan reform, when a genus had several names, or compound names, or diminutive names, such as, Alsine, Alsinoides, Alsinastrum, Alsinella, Alsinaria, Alsinastroides, Pseudo-Alsine, &c. Yet many botanists of the French school have committed such an error, because they study very little the Linnaan rules, and the Acaderay of Philadelphia is now beginning to follow the same mistaken path. We even know of a few botanists who do it intentionally, despising so far Linnæus, that they would overthrow altogether his mighty nomenclature, and if they have not dared yet to abolish the Linnæan names, they endeavour, whenever new genera are to be framed, to recall the old obsolete blundering names of former botanists, or to coin similar ones of the same stamp. When reminded of their mistake, they pretend that any name will do, as the old botanists used to say; that we have in the vulgar languages many synonymical, omonymical, derivative and compound names for different things, and that the language of botany and zoology, will not be the worse, for imitating our vulgar languages in that respect. But the absurdity and temerity of this evasive pretext must be evident to every reflecting mind. The language of those sciences, is founded upon sound scientific principles, it has been totally reformed and established by Linnæus, arising with splendour from the greatest confusion; it has its peculiar laws, rules, and grammar; it is common to all the nations of European origin; and, therefore, almost universal: it is intended to distinguish, at first glance, every generic object from every other, providing against the possibility of difficulties and ambiguities: every genus is the type of a peculiar structure and organization, and its name must be deemed typical and radical, &c. &c. We might proceed to state the evident consequences of this state of things; and we might fill a volume to prove at length the correctness of the principles which we advocate; but it will, perhaps, be sufficient to refer any one to the philosophical works of Linnæus, and we shall conclude by observing, that the ultimate consequence of this new confusion will be, that as soon as

a new genus shall be introduced by a bad or doubtful name, another good name will be given to it by those who contend for the purity of generic nomenclature, and sometimes many such names may be proposed by different authors at a distance; whereby such new genera will acquire two names, or perhaps several names, and in the succession of time, when deliberate attention will be paid to the subject, the evidence of correct principles must certainly prevail, and the erroneous names will have a poor chance of success; they will be forgotten, as those of Morison, Plukenet, Ray, Bauhin, &c. are at this time, and their authors will share the fate of those eminent authors, whose labours are of no use to nomenclature, owing to the defects which they fostered.

Nine new genera have been established in this Journal, 3 of which belong to botany, Crypta, Hemianthus and Collinsia; and 6 to zoology, Firoloida, Cerapus, Sesarma, Catostomus, Monolepis and Mammillifera. Many of these bear erroneous denominations.

Crypta of Nuttall. This name is already the root of several botanical genera, and of even the Linnæan class Cryptogamia; it is found in the genera Cryptandra, Cryptocephalus, Cryptophthalmus, Cryptostemon, &c. It is, besides, against the Linnæan rules to frame a generic name from a single adjective, without a modification: it would have been very easy and proper to have lengthened it into Crypting, or Cryptella, or Cryptaria. We, therefore, propose to substitute the first of these names Cryptina.

Collinsia of Nuttall, is nearly in the same case, since it appears to be only a root or contraction of Collinsonia; it would be more proper to modify it into Collinsiana.

Firoloida of Lesueur, is composed from Firola, with an obsolete and obnoxious termination; it must be changed altogether: we propose to substitute the significative name of Pyrlymnus, meaning naked nucleus.

Mammillifera of Lesueur, is rather too long; it is too much like Mammillaria in meaning and sense, and is composed of two Latin names united, which are tolerated in the specific nomenclature, but not often in the generic; lastly, it has too much likeness to the classical name of Mammalia to be tolerated. It must then be changed into Actimastus; meaning radiated mammilla.

Cerapus of Say, is a good name, if the bad name of Apus, Latreille, (Phyllopus