'since,' 'as,' and 'whereas (in the sense of a preamble). much as many have taken in hand to set forth in order,' &c.

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Foras

'Seeing that,' considering that.' Seeing that you cannot get what you ask, take what you can get.' Considering that the world is so intricate, we are not to be surprised that science has progressed slowly.' The only peculiarity of these phrases as conjunctions of reason is derived from the meaning of the words 'seeing,' 'considering,' which have a special appropriateness when the reason grows out of circumstances reflected on by the mind.

For that reason.'

This is of course a phrase directly suited to the

purpose of assigning a reason.

7. (2.) Conjunctions of Supposition, Condition, or Qualification: if,supposing that,' if not,' 'unless,' except,' 'without,' otherwise,' whether,' as if,' though,' 'notwithstanding,' 'albeit.'

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'If.' When a thing is stated not absolutely or unconditionally, but under a certain condition, supposition, or qualification, 'if' is the principal word for expressing the condition. I will, if I can;' if I could, I would.' This is the main use of the conjunction, to which it adheres with considerable uniformity. A peculiar and somewhat ambiguous employment of the word is seen in the fable, where the ant says to the grasshopper, 'If you sung in summer, dance in winter, where 'if' has the force of a reason, the condition being a realized fact, since, or as you sung.' These are cases where the conjunction is always followed by the indicative mood.

"Supposing that,' on the supposition, presumption, allegation, hypothesis that,' are phrases that vary the mode of introducing conditional statements; they carry their own meaning with them. "In case that' is a very convenient and often-wanted phrase for anticipating.contingencies or eventualities. The prepositional phrase in the event of' is of the same tenor.

If not' is the conjunction of negative condition, for which there are many equivalents. Aristotle, the most sagacious, if not the most comprehensive, mind of antiquity,' conveys an insinuation of doubt, although the context and the manner will often show that the speaker either believes or disbelieves the statement.

Unless' is one of the most usual conjunctions of negative condidition: unless I hear to the contrary, I will be there.'

'Except is another word for the negative condition: 'except (unless) ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish.'

"Without' was formerly used to signify if not:''without you go, I will not.' The connection of this sense with the usual force of the preposition is apparent.

Otherwise,' which has been already classified as a co-ordinating conjunction (adversative, exclusive), may be employed in the present sense on the same principle as the preposition without: write by return of post, otherwise I shall conclude,' &c. This form, however, is an ellipsis of the negative condition rather than the expression of it; 'otherwise' is equal to 'if you do not.'

SUBORDINATING-CONDITION, END.

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"Whether.' In the expression I know not whether he will come,' the word 'if' sometimes takes the place of whether,' as if conditionality were suggested. The transition from stating conditionality to implying mere doubt is an obvious one; the meanings are still distinct.

As if' is a compound conjunction carrying out the sense of both words. He started as if he saw a spirit,' that is, as he would have done if he,' &c.

Though,' although.' These are the words for expressing concession, which is condition, with the circumstance that parties are willing to allow something that they might perhaps refuse. Though all men deny thee, yet will I not; 'grant the supposition that all men,' &c. When something is given as true with a certain limitation, we may use this word: they advanced steadily, though slowly.' The use of yet' to preface the principal clause increases the emphasis of that clause, but does not affect the meaning of though' in connection with the subordinate clause. The omission of though' in the above example would make the clauses co-ordinate, united by the co-ordinating arrestive conjunction 'yet.' We have a variety of phrases for the present meaning: provided that,' 'allowing that,' granting that,' &c. Supposing that,' also frequently implies that a concession is made.

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Notwithstanding' falls under the same head as the foregoing. It is a verbal phrase converted into a preposition in the first instance, and then into a conjunction. It obviously means 'I am prepared to do a certain thing, granting what appears to be strong considerations or forces on the other side.' For all that,' in spite of all that,' are expressive synonymes. Anyhow,' at all events,' are other phrases of allied signification.

'Albeit is an expressive combination, and ought not to be considered as obsolete, or old-fashioned.

8. (3.) Conjunctions of End, or Purpose: that,' 'in order that,'' so—as,' ‘as—as,' 'lest.'

'That' is the demonstrative pronoun, converted into our chief conjunction of end. We sow, that we may reap;' 'men toil, that they may attain to leisure.' The transference of the demonstrative to this peculiar use may be explained by supposing that after a fact is stated the hearer is ready to ask what then?' what next?' 'what of it?' 'for what end?' whereupon the demonstrative supplies the information desired, that (namely) we may reap.' Without assuming the natural desire to know why a thing is, or why an assertion is made, we cannot well account either for this conjunction, or for the still greater blank of connecting words shown in the gerund construction: We sow to reap; they stoop to rise; born but to die;' in all which the action expected to follow is simply named in its most naked form, the hearer being looked upon as asking why? or wherefore?

'In order that' is somewhat more explicit than the simple that ;' still it fails to express the fact of end by a direct meaning: the words in order' mean only this first, that next;' the hearer must

himself suppose that the one leads to, or points to, the other. The same phrase is interposed in the gerund construction; we read in order to be informed.'

'So-as.' 'He so acted, as to gain the confidence of others.' This is a kind of relative construction, the 'so' being demonstrative, the 'as' relative. He acts in that manner, by which manner he gains.' The end is still a matter of inference more than of direct information. The effect of the construction is to indicate not merely end, but a certain express suitability in the means employed to compass the end.

'Lest' is the end of avoidance: 'in order not to.'

'They set a strong guard, lest any one should escape.' In the use of this conjunction we should notice that if the principal verb contains the meaning of avoidance, that' is preferable to 'lest:' 'I feared that (not lest, I should be deceived,'

Precaution is indicated by the phrases, 'provided that,'' with the understanding that,'' with this proviso,' &c.

Precaution may be viewed either as condition or as end. It is a collateral object to be kept in view, and fulfilled along with the main purpose. In doing what is chiefly aimed at, we are to secure certain other things: provided that all is safe, you may depart.' In Acts of Parliament the phrase used is 'provided always that.'

9. (4.) The relative Adverbs introducing clauses of time may be called Subordinating Conjunctions of Time: 'when,' while,' 'as,' ' until,' ' ere,' 'before,'' after.'

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'I will come when I am at leisure;' I will praise thee while (so long as) I live;' as I looked, some one came near;' they remained until night set in;' it will be long ere you have such a chance;' 'the truth will come out before we are done;' after the vote was taken, the assembly broke up,'

Immediate consequence is signified by various compound connectives: no sooner than,' 'just-when,' hardly-before,' 'the moment-that,' 'as soon as,' &c.

The INTERJECTION is not properly a part of speech, as it does not enter into the construction of sentences. It is a sudden exclamation prompted by some strong feeling or emotion. There are various utterances suited to the different emotions of the mind; as, joy, huzza!' hurra!' grief, 'O!' ah!' alas!' wonder, 'hah!' approbation, bravo!' aversion, pugh!' tush!' For calling attention, hark!' 'lo!' 'hush!' &c.

EXCLAMATION, one of the figures of rhetoric, employs words of ordinary language in the manner of interjections: what!' 'for shame!'ah me!' 'how strange!'

INFLECTION.

The second part of Etymology, called Inflection, treats of the changes made on words to express various relations and meanings. Thus the Noun and Pronoun are changed in three ways, viz., for Gender, Number, and Case. These changes constitute DECLENSION.

The Adjective is inflected for Degree, which is named COMPARISON, and applies also to Adverbs.

The Verb is changed to signify Person, Number, Time, &c. This is called CONJUGATION.

The uninflected Parts of Speech are the Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection.

INFLECTION OF NOUNS.

GENDER.

1. Beings possessing animal life are divided into the two sexes, male and female, or masculine and feminine; as 'man, woman;' 'bull, cow.' Plants and things destitute of life have no sex in grammar.

To this distinction corresponds the division of names according to Gender: names for individuals of the male sex are of the masculine gender, as 'king;' names for the female sex are of the feminine gender, as 'queen.' Names for things without sex are sometimes said to be of the Neuter Gender, but should be simply left as of no gender; as 'gold,' mountain,' bread,' oak.'

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Many words are applied to both Genders alike; as 'parent,'' child,' 'cousin.' These are said to be of the Common Gender.

The names applied to the greater number of the inferior animals are of this sort, it being only in the more important and best known species that we are at the pains to note the sex. Thus, trout, ant, lizard, are common to both sexes. If we wish, on occasion, to mark the sex we use a special designation, as the prefix ‘he' or 'she,' or the adjectives 'male,' 'female." Man, and mankind, are often used comprehensively for both sexes. We also use other designations, such as actor, author, painter, poet, for both sexes, although they are properly masculine, and have feminine derivatives (actress, &c.). The effect of this is to give very different meanings to the two phrases: 'the greatest of living actors,' and 'the greatest of living actresses,' applied to a woman. By the one she is designated the first actor of either sex, by the second the first of her own sex.

In English, gender follows sex (with a few exceptions); that is, masculine words and forms are confined to the male sex, feminine forms to the female sex. But in many other languages, as Latin, Greek, &c., a poetical or figurative process of personifying things without life was in extensive operation, by which the distinction of gender was extended to nouns generally; and the adjective was regularly inflected in three forms for masculine, feminine, and neuter. In French, every noun is either masculine or feminine.

There are three ways of distinguishing the Genders of Nouns.

2. I. By employing different words; as king, queen;' 'husband, wife;' 'boy, girl;' 'cock, hen.'

This is a question of the meaning of words, and not of grammar. The number of such cases is not great. The following are the chief :

Some of these names are distinct only in appearance, being modifications of the same original word. Thus, 'slut' and 'sloven' are both derived from 'slow;' uncle' and 'aunt,' 'nephew' and 'niece,' 'lord' andlady,' are remotely connected. Countess' is the derivative feminine ofcount,' the French name for 'earl.' 'Girl' was originally of either gender, being derived from a Saxon word signifying a little churl.'†

The giving of different words to denote gender is an exceptional

*Man and wife,' for 'husband and wife,' is a Scotticism.

Man,' in Anglo-Saxon, was of both genders; 'woman' was 'wif-man,' or 'weftman,' that is, the man that weaves; this being a feminine occupation.