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'Partly-partly.' 'He spoke partly from conviction, partly from prudence.' This is another way of coupling or adding two predications, introducing at the same time a circumstance that seems suitable to the case.

'First, then, secondly,' &c. We use the numeral adverbs to indicate cumulation; the additional circumstances being definite order and a means of reference.

'Further.' As much as to say the case is not yet exhausted, there is more to be said upon it. Moreover,' is substantially identical in meaning.

'Now.' The effect of now' commencing a sentence is to follow up a statement by something that completes it, so as to enable an inference to be drawn. Thus if a condition be premised from which something follows, the compliance with the condition would be expressed by now,' and the conclusion by therefore.' 'He was promised a holiday if he executed his task; now he has done the task, therefore he is entitled to the holiday.' (The minor premise of the syllogism is correctly introduced by now.') Not this man,

but Barabbas; now Barabbas was a robber.' Here'now' adds an explanatory circumstance, which is a recognized mode of using the word.

Well. In introducing a new statement, this is a sort of declaration that hitherto all is satisfactory and indisputable, and that the way is clear for proceeding another step.

It is in the consecutive sentences of a paragraph that these adverb ial connectives come most frequently into play, and they add much to the clearness of the connection when carefully employed.

The omitting to use a conjunction has the force of cumulation; the mere fact of stating one thing after another, with no word expressing opposition, or conditionality, or other relationship, leaves it to be understood that they are to the same general effect, just as if we were to employ 'and' to unite them. In poetry this omission also suggests inference: The wind passeth over it; it is gone.'

4. (2.) The second class of Co-ordinating Conjunctions are the Adversative; they place the one Sentence or Clause in some kind of opposition to what precedes. This class is subdivided into three species.

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(a.) Exclusive: 'not-but,' 'else,' otherwise.'

'Not-but.' 'A struggle, not for empire, but for existence.' 'He did not speak, but he fought.' When we wish to exclude or put aside one fact to bring another into prominence, we make use of this combination.

· Else,' ‘otherwise,' on any other supposition.' These have a definite and important signification; it is so, had it not been so, something would have happened.' 'He came to town yesterday, otherwise I should not have met him.'

(b.) Alternative: 'either-or,' 'whether-or,' 'neither

The general meaning of each of these couples is well known, but there are some special meanings worth noting.

'Or,' This sometimes expresses a mere alternative name, or synonyme, the thing being the same: Christ, or (that is) the Messiah.’ (In judicial proceedings this is expressed by alias.) We are hence, sometimes, at a loss to know whether an alternative is merely verbal, or in the subject.

Or' is also used for otherwise: 'you must study hard, or you

cannot succeed.'

'Nor.' This word is sometimes a contraction for and not:' 'he foresaw the consequences, nor were they long delayed' (and they were not),

These alternative conjunctions are not always confined to two things: a bird, quadruped, or fish,'

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(c.) The Arrestive, represented by but:' but then,' still,'' yet,'' only,' nevertheless, however.' Phrases: 'for all that,' 'at the same time.'

'But.' The characteristic meaning of 'but' is seen when something has been said that suggests, according to the usual course of things, a certain other fact, or conclusion, which, however, does not follow in this case. 'He was honest, but he was not esteemed.' An honest man usually gains the esteem of his fellows, and when we hear the attribute of honesty affirmed, we are naturally disposed to go on and assume the accompaniment of respect; this is prevented by the use of 'but,' hence the designation arrestive.' It is the conjunction of exception and surprise. The meeting dispersed ;' the conclusion is that everybody went away; to check this inference, which may be too hasty and sweeping, we add, but the leaders remained.' ‘He is rich, but not happy;' he tries hard, but he does not prosper,' &c.

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It is a loose employment of this forcible word, to bring it in where there is no exception taken, or no arrest put upon a natural inference. No man taketh it from me, but I lay it down of myself;' but' is here unnecessary. It is also a common mistake to use it in the sense of now,' as signifying the completing of a case in order to draw an inference. Men are mortal; but (for now') we are men; therefore we are mortal.' The mere stating of a contrast does not justify 'but;' when pride cometh, then cometh shame; but with the lowly is wisdom.' The last assertion is in accordance with the first (the denial of the opposite is another mode of affirming the same fact), and therefore there is no sufficient case for 'but.' While' is a suitable word in this connection; so is the phrase 'on the other hand.'

In the following sentence the propriety of but' depends on the facts of the case: the Commons passed the bill, but the Lords threw it out.' If it were usual for the Lords to agree with the Commons, their opposition would be a surprise, and would be expressed by but.' Where there is no surprise, a cumulative conjunction is to be

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preferred. Parliament passed the measure, but the King refused his consent,' would, under the custom of the English Constitution, be a proper construction.

But' is the conjunction of epigram.

'But then.' A more special form of 'but;' equal to 'but in that case, or on that supposition.'

'Still.' An equivalent of 'but,' and even more emphatic. It suggests a pause to hear what is to be said by way of exception or opposition to the previous statements. 'Everything went against him ; still he persisted.' As it is a greater break in the flow of the composition than but,' it is a preferable word for commencing a period, or the second member of a period divided by a semicolon.

'Yet.' The peculiar force of 'yet' is brought out by its connection with though: Though deep, yet clear.' When though' is not expressed, it is understood, and the meaning of yet' is almost the same. The intention is as it were formally to concede a point that would seem to carry a certain consequence with it, and at the same time to forbid that consequence.

'Nevertheless.' In conveying the same general meaning as the foregoing, this long word makes a considerable break or pause, and is therefore suitable for introducing a longer declaration, as in commencing a period, or an extended member of a period.

'However.' A word of like purport to the foregoing. It has the peculiarity of being often placed in the middle of the sentence or clause qualified by it. That course, however, he was not inclined to take.' The advantage of such an arrangement is, that the conjunction does not stand between the two connected statements, and so permits the reference to be emphatically close.

'Only.' Placed at the beginning of an assertion 'only' has the effect of 'but.' 'Do as you please; only let your intention be apparent;' that is, your doing so is still to permit this one thing, namely, &c.

For all that,' in spite of all that,' notwithstanding all that,' are phrases that produce the arrestive effect, and are suitable to be made use of when a more than ordinary emphasis is demanded. This emphasis they give partly from the force of the words, partly from their occupying the attention by their length.

'At the same time.' Another phrase belonging to the arrestive class, without much specialty in its application.

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5. (3.) The last class of Co-ordinating Conjunctions are those expressing effect, or consequence, called Illative therefore,' 'wherefore,' 'hence,' whence,'' consequently,' accordingly,' thus, so,' so that," then,' so then.'

'Therefore' is the typical word of the class, and the most frequently made use of. The rest do little more than afford synonymes to vary the composition. 'Wherefore' is equal to and therefore;' hence,' the same as 'from this;' 'whence,' like 'wherefore,' dispenses with 'and' when we should say 'and hence.'

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'Consequently' is the equivalent of as a consequence.' 'Accordingly' may mean 'consequence' or 'effect,' like the preceding; it is also suited by its etymology to a rather different meaning sometimes important to be signified,—' in harmony with.' 'The arrangements are that the cavalry and artillery shall move in advance; accordingly, you (the cavalry) are to leave your position,' &c.

'Thus and 'so,' like accordingly,' are words originally implying comparison or similarity of manner, and extended to signify inference or consequence. Thus ' is employed after stating a principle to introduce an example or case in point; as much as to say 'we shall give an instance of what is intended.' It also expresses a comparison in the strict sense; as in the passage from the Pleasures of Hope: At summer's eve, when heaven's ethereal bow,' &c.-' thus with delight we linger.' The existence of these two distinct uses renders the word less apt as an illative conjunction, although still admissible. So,' whose primary function is to make a comparison, can also express a consequence. "There was nothing to be seen, so we went our way.' 'So that' is more specific than 'so;' the addition of 'that' excludes the meaning of comparison; hence this combination is one of our most precise forms of signifying inference. Its most characteristic import is, 'to such a degree that.'

Then.' From having as an adverb the force of after that,' or 'in the next place,' then ' has been included among illative conjunctions; the fact of one thing following another being given as showing causation or inference. (This explains the adoption of 'consequently, it follows that,' as words signifying cause and effect.) Then ' is more commonly used in a compound phrase, so then,' and then;' but it may, standing alone, have the full force of 'therefore,' in drawing an inference, or stating an effect, or a consequence. then the cause was gained,' signifies by those means it came about as an effect that,' &c.

So

To vary the expression of this important relationship, as well as to make it occasionally more emphatic and precise, we use phrases of greater length; as the effect, consequence, result, upshot was;''the inference is; it follows;' it may be concluded, inferred,' &c.

6. The SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS are divided according to the various relations or modes of dependence, as Reason (because), Condition (if), End (that), Precaution (provided that), Time (when).

(1.) Conjunctions of Reason and Cause: because,' for," since,' 'as,' 'whereas,' inasmuch as,' for that reason.'

When we invert an illative connection, stating the consequence as the main clause, the other is then assigned as the reason: he is in earnest, therefore he will succeed' (illative); he will succeed, because he is in earnest' (reason). The clause because he is in earnest,' is a subordinate or dependent clause; in other words, the fact

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is given not for its own sake, but as bearing out something else. The conjunctions introducing these clauses are, therefore, called subordinating.

Because,' by its derivation, is the word for assigning a cause. Moral causes, or motives acting on the mind, are expressed by this conjunction: he reads because he has thought himself hungry; he writes because he has read himself full.' Physical causation is stated in this example: the crops failed, because the season was dry.'

For' is used in assigning causation, in giving what is called the logical reason or proof, and in explaining or accounting for a thing: The brook will be very high, for a great deal of rain fell in the night' (physical cause); a great deal of rain must have fallen, for the brook is high' (the logical reason or proof). He pressed on, for his ambition was still unsatisfied' (explanation). The word is especially appropriate in this last sense. A characteristic application is seen in such a sentence as 'do as you are told, for much depends on it ;' here there is a blank or ellipsis, and when that is filled up, the conjunction shows itself in the sense of giving the reason or proof: 'do as you are told; if you fail, the consequences will be serious, for (or the proof of which is) much depends on it.'

'Since' literally means something that is past, and hence settled and fixed, so that whatever consequences depend on it must now arise. 'Since you desire it, I will look into the matter.' It declares a certain circumstance to have occurred, and gives that as a reason for the main affirmation.

As.' This word adds to its many uses that of a subordinating conjunction of reason. It derives this meaning also from the original idea of declaring similarity or comparison. As we are at leisure, let us see what is to be seen;' the as' here assigns a reason for our seeing, &c., and it does so by indicating a sort of similarity or harmony between the positions of our being at leisure and our seeing all we can: it is in accordance with our situation to see,' &c. 'Let us act out, conform to, or resemble our position,' &c. Although as' is thus included among the subordinating conjunctions of reason, there is more frequent danger of ambiguity with it than with the others of the class.

'Whereas.' This conjunction introduces the preamble in every Act of Parliament, giving the reason or motive of the enactment, or the evil to be remedied by the provisions that follow. Hence it is strictly a conjunction of reason, but its employment in this sense is mostly confined to legal compositions. The meaning belonging to the word in ordinary style is different. I offered to take the lot entire, whereas every one else wished it divided.' Here it plainly indicates a contrast between two things, with a view of showing the superiority of the one expressed in the principal clause. We may explain this application by supposing the word to be a compound relative (like wherein, whereat), implying in circumstances wherein;'or with reference to which.'

Inasmuch as,' 'forasmuch as.' These are other equivalents of