'among the trees,' among friends,' in the midst of his flock.' Scot. 'I stuck among (in) the mud.'

To meditate amongst decay, and stand

A ruin amidst ruins.

So' to divide between,' implies two; 'to divide among,' more than two.

'Beyond.' From the primary meaning of outside of in place, the far side of―as beyond sea,'' beyond bounds,' beyond hearing '—this preposition is extended metaphorically to signify superiority or excess in a great many other properties; thus, beyond the number or amount, beyond his power or his means,' beyond him,' 'beyond description,' beyond dispute,' 'beyond measure,' 'beyond the grave.' To go beyond,' is to deceive, or circumvent.

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Abaft. A sea term exclusively.

'Round.' Adheres literally to its well-known primary signification, except in the one phrase 'to get round a person,' for to wheedle or prevail with. 'Around' is the same. About' has the primary meaning of 'around,' but is much more vaguely applied. It passes off into signifying a certain indefinite nearness or proximity, the being contained in a place somewhere or other; as 'about the house,'' about the town, about the country, about the person.' This is also the force of the word as applied to time: about midnight,' means not exactly midnight, but some time not far off. So with number: about a hundred.' From expressing nearness it becomes also a preposition of reference; as about my father's business,' about who was greatest,' about the origin of evil.' As an adverb, its force is seen in 'go about.'

'Against.' Against the wall.'

Without.' Without the camp.'

These prepositions of place and motion include nearly all the simple and primitive prepositions of the language. It will be seen from the foregoing explanations that by means of metaphorical extensions, we employ relationships of place to express most other relationships denoted by prepositions.

The relationships of place may be made more explicit and emphatic by a variety of compound phrases, which have the exact force of prepositions; as 'in the midst of,' 'in the heart, centre, interior of;' 'close by,' 'hard by,' 'in close proximity to,' 'in the neighbourhood or vicinity of;' 'right through,' straight at;' in anticipation of.' 13. II. TIME. 'Since,' 'till,'

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'pending,' after.'

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'until,'

'Since.' The time after an event: since the peace.'

'during,'

'Till,'' until.' Preceding and up to an event till the end of the

century.'

'During,' 'pending.' The continuance of the event.

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Many Prepositions of place may be applied to time, by governing a noun of time; as 'in,' on,' 'at,' 'before,' 'between,' by,' 'within,'' about,' above,' near.'

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AGENCY.

END.

REFERENCE.

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In a year;' on this;' at midsummer;' before noon;' between this and the end of the week;' by Christmas next;' within the month;' about an hour;' above a generation;' near six o'clock.' The expression of time may be rendered more specific and emphatic by a variety of phrases: at the moment of,'' on the eve of,' &c.

14. III. AGENCY. The agent, instrument, or means of an action is indicated by the Prepositions 'by,' 'through,' 'with;' and by the phrases, by means of,' 'by virtue of,' 'through the instrumentality of,' 'by help of,' by force of,' &c.

The simple prepositions have been already explained. The phrases derive their signification of agency from the noun: by means of a powerful connection; by virtue of his position as judge;' through the instrumentality of a skilful agent;' by help of favourable circumstances;' by force of earnest solicitation.'

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15. IV. END, purpose, motive, or reason: 'for,' 'from.' Phrases: out of,' on account of,' by way of,'' for the sake of,'' for the ends of,' 'in consideration of,' 'on the score of,' 'from a regard to,'' with a view to,'' with an eye to.'

As all the actions of human beings are for some end, the statement of the end is often required. The leading preposition is for: 'he works for his bread.' When the feeling to be gratified is pointed out, 'from 'is employed: 'he works from hunger;' 'he reads from curiosity (for information).' 'Out of kindness;' on account of mere ambition;' by way of strengthening his case; for the sake of peace;' for the ends of justice; in consideration of his former good conduct;'

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on the score

of ill health;' from a regard to character;' with a view to a good education.' The meaning of the noun suggests the suitable application of the prepositional phrases. We should say, in consideration of his youth, he was slightly punished,' but on account of the serious character of the offence; consideration implying a favourable sentiment. 16. V. REFERENCE: 'on,' of,' about,' 'touching,' 'concerning,' 'with reference to,' 'as for,' as to,'' as regards,' on the subject of,' 'on the matter of,'' on the point of,'' in respect of.'

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·

'On the beautiful;' "I sing of war;' he came to speak to me about his journey;' touching the law;' concerning his interests ;' with reference to your application;' as for that;'" 'as to him;' as regards the progress of the suit;' on the subject of explosive mixtures;' on the matter of the sale;' in respect of your wishes.'

Allied to reference is Supposition, for which there are several prepositional phrases, although the meaning

is more usually expressed by conjunctions: 'in the event of,'' on the supposition of,' 'in case of.'

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'In the event of his not arriving;' on the supposition of there being an abundant supply;' in case of failure.'

17. VI. SEPARATION and Exclusion: without,'' save,' 'except,' 'besides,' 'setting aside,' 'putting on one side,' 'other than,' more than,' apart from,' 'far from,'

'but.'

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'Without arms;' 'save one;' 'except England;' besides his own ;' setting aside the question of compensation; putting (leaving) on one side the fear of consequences;' no man other than a soldier;' what reason more than a wandering inclination;' apart from his companions; far from home;' 'none but him.'

18. VII. INCLINATION and Conformity: 'for,'' according to,' in accordance with,' agreeable to,' 'in pursuance of.'

For the ends of justice;' according to use and wont;' in accordance with the views of both parties;' agreeable to your instructions;' in pursuance of the arrangements already entered on.'

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19. VIII. AVERSION, Opposition: against,' 'athwart,' ' in spite of,' 'in defiance of.'

A decree against law;'athwart the wishes of friends;' 'in spite of fate;' in defiance of his professions.'

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20. IX. SUBSTITUTION: instead of,' 'in room of,' 'in place of,'' on the part of,' 'as a substitute for.'

Instead of his brother;' (by way of evasion) 'fair words instead of deeds; in room of the deceased;' in place of one of the officials;' as a substitute for a bridge.' Scot. In place of (instead of) pitying him they laughed at him.'

21. X. POSSESSION, Material: 'of,'' belonging to,' 'the property of,' made of."

22. It has been seen that some words are both prepositions and adverbs. A preposition is known by its governing a noun, or a phrase corresponding to a noun. Thus, a participial or infinitive phrase is frequently governed by a preposition: on coming home; on breaking the seal;' after considering the case;' without straining hard; the reason of his answering so soon,'

THE CONJUNCTION.

1. Conjunctions join together sentences, parts of sentences, and single words: day ends, and night begins; they were equal in power, but not in estimation;' he is neither a fool nor a rogue.'

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The primary use of conjunctions is to unite together distinct affirmations, or sentences, and this is their ordinary use. Even in most cases where they seem to connect single words, we shall find that there is a union of affirmations, only in an abbreviated form. 'Napoleon and Wellington were great generals' is a condensation of the two separate sentences, Napoleon was a great general, and Wellington was a great general.' But this does not hold with two and two is four,' 'if they stand between you and me,' 'to and fro,' 'up and down.' To meet those instances, it is laid down that conjunctions also couple words in the same construction, or in the same subject or object relation. Some grammarians would consider 'and' in these cases as a preposition equal to 'with,' together with:' two together with two' makes four. But no one would contend that the expression 'he and us is going together' is good grammar, which it would be if we were ever allowed to treat 'and' as a preposition.

It is necessary to understand the precise way that conjunctions join words together, in order to distinguish them from prepositions. A conjunction never governs a case; the two words joined are both in the same case under a common concord or government: 'you and I will accompany him and them;' 'let us ride and tie.' The two words conjoined by a preposition are directly related to each other, and not put under the common regimen of the clause; as the house by the river is old.'

'I see six, if not seven;' 'men are, if wise, temperate,' may each be considered either as two sentences contracted into one, or as words conjoined under a similar construction, or relation to the rest of the sentence.

2. Conjunctions are divided into CO-ORDINATING and SUBORDINATING. Co-ordinating Conjunctions join co-ordinate clauses; that is, independent affirmations: 'and,' 'but,' ' either,' 'or,' 'neither,' 'nor,' are of this class. Subordinating Conjunctions unite subordinate or dependent clauses to the principal clause of a sentence: if,' for,'' since,' as, though,' because,' whether,' 'unless,' 'except,' 'lest,' that,' after,' 'before,' 'ere,' ' until,' are of this class.

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These are the conjunctions strictly and properly so called. There are, however, many adverbs that serve to connect one clause with another, from their having a relative meaning. He is industrious, therefore he is happy; therefore' is an adverb qualifying he is happy,' by assigning a circumstance or condition of the fact stated; but, being a relative word, it has no meaning in itself, and derives its meaning from another statement, he is industrious,' and so connects the two statements in the manner of a conjunction. Such words are called relative adverbs, conjunctive adverbs, or adverbial conjunctions. They are likewise,' also,' 'still,' 'yet,' ' nevertheless,' 'notwithstanding,' 'however,' therefore,' 'consequently,' 'hence' 'ac

cordingly. These are all co-ordinating connectives. As most of them are exact equivalents of the proper conjunctions, it is right to enumerate them here, and to characterize their peculiar meanings. We may also include the adverbs formed from the relative pronouns; namely, 'when' and 'where;' these may be viewed either as conjunctions, or as substitutes for relative pronouns. The clauses they introduce are coordinating or subordinating according to circumstances. In analyzing sentences we may, if we think proper, treat these adverbial conjunctions as adverbs, and the clauses introduced by them as adverbial clauses. It is also to be observed that several of the conjunctions in the foregoing list, 'before,' 'after,' until,' 'since,' are really prepositions, governing, not a noun, but a clause. 'I have not seen him since he arrived,' if fully expressed, as was common in old English, would be 'since that he arrived.'After that I was turned I repented, and after that I was instructed,' &c. Taking together, therefore, the true conjunctions, the conjunctive adverbs, and the prepositions governing clauses, the entire list of connective words employed in the English language may be exhibited as follows:

3. The CO-ORDINATING Conjunctions are, first, such as unite clauses whose meaning adds to, or accords with, what precedes. These are, 'AND,' also,' 'likewise,' 'as well as,' 'not only - but,' 'partly partly,' 'first then,' secondly,' &c., further,'' moreover,' 'now,' well'. These Conjunctions and Conjunctive Adverbs may be called Cumulative.

'And.' This is the chief of the class; it is a strict conjunction; the rest are adverbs having the same general effect, but with additional circumstances or shades of meaning. And ' couples, or unites two affirmations, and does no more.

'Both-and,' serve to put a special emphasis on the second of the two connected sentences, or clauses.

'Also.' In connecting one periodic sentence with another, we may use also to introduce the second, when there is some similarity to be marked. Very often, however, there is little implied in it beyond what would be signified by and.'

'Likewise' is nearly the same as 'also.'

It was considered that there was point in the remark made on the son of a famous Scotch judge, who had succeeded to his father's office, but not to his ability: 'he was a judge also, but not likewise.' 'Likewise' often connects one sentence with a preceding, having nearly the force of 'and.'

'As well as.' In joining words under the same construction, 'as 'well as gives an especial emphasis to the connection. 'He as well

as you' is more forcible than 'he and you.' 'No less than' has a similar effect.

'Not only-but. Instead of saying England and all the rest of Europe,' we may say, when we mean to put stress on the circumstance of England not standing alone, not only England, but all the rest of Europe;' not England alone, but all Europe.'