ADVERBIAL RELATIVES.

25

restrictive relative, especially with a noun of time as the antecedent; as 'the good news from Ireland reached London at a time when good news was needed.'

6

6

It is also usual to employ in which' for the same meaning; but in cases where the relative clause limits or defines, that' is the proper relative, and we can say the very day that he arrived.' When' has not always the explicative meaning; thus, the day of trial will come when all will be different;' in which' would here be the correct relative. We may say, however, that 'when' is perhaps oftener restrictive than co-ordinating.

17. Where' is used as a relative when the antecedent denotes place; as I put the book (in the place) where I found it;' for 'in which I found it,' or 'that I found it in.'

The remarks made on 'when' apply to 'where.' It may be a substitute for either relative, but it is perhaps more commonly and better applied when the restrictive meaning is intended, as in the above instance. 'Where' takes a much wider range than literal place, being extended to the many metaphorical applications of place. Thus we may say the point where your argument fails;' where thy treasure is, there will thy heart be also.'

These two adverbial relatives are of great use in varying and lightening composition, which is always liable to be overburdened with the common relatives.

18. 'Whence' is occasionally used as a relative of place he returned to the place whence he came,' instead of from which he came,' or 'that he came from.'

Whither' is used in like manner in the sense of 'to a place;' as 'I know not whither he went.'

Whence' and 'whither' are of less general application than when' and 'where.' They are more confined to their principal use as interrogative adverbs. As relatives they are, strictly speaking, the equivalents of the common relatives with prepositions; from which' (whence), 'to which' (whither). But we postpone the more special account of the relative as governed by prepositions, to the second branch of Etymology, or Inflection; under which head we shall have to allude to the adverbial relatives compounded with prepositions, as whereof,' wherein,' 'whereto,' 'whereat,' some of which represent what is called the cases of the relative pronouns, 'whereof' being equal to whose.'

6

6

19. The compound forms whoever,' whoso,' whosoever,' 'whichever,' whichsoever,' whatever,' whatsoever,' 'whenever,' whensoever,' wherever,' wheresoever,' whithersoever,' 'whensoever,' have a certain indefinite meaning, and have their antecedents often left unexpressed; thus, whoever is found wanting,' means any person that is found; 'whoso is wise;' whatever be

6

the consequences, I dare not stay;' 'wherever, whithersoever you go.'

The characteristic meanings of these words are more closely allied with the interrogative meanings of who,' 'which,' 'what,' &c., than with their meanings as relatives. Thus the peculiar force of which' as an interrogative is, 'which one of a certain defined number or class?' and this is the meaning of whichsoever.'

20. IV. Interrogative Pronouns: 'who,' which,' 'what.' The equivalent Adverbs are 'when,' 'where,' 'whence,' 'whether,' and their compounds.

These are obviously the relative pronouns in a new acceptation; the transference is explained on the principle of ellipsis or abbreviation; thus, the complete form of an interrogative sentence may be supposed to be, 'I want to know the man who did this.' The first part, containing the expression of the wish, is dropped, and the place supplied by putting a peculiar stress on the relative who,' which then bears the whole force of the omitted clause.

6

21. Who' applies to persons, and is entirely indefinite. Who goes there?' supposes complete ignorance of the person alluded to.

6

22. Which,' unlike its use as a Relative, applies to persons as well as to things. Its peculiar force is selective.

It supposes a known class or group, and inquires the specific individual or individuals: Which of you convinceth me of sin?'

Which is the way?' 'Which is best?'

23. What' applies to both persons and things.

When it is applied to persons, a noun is necessary, as What man of honour would act so?' What monarch would resign his power meekly?' Without such a noun, it refers exclusively to things; as 'What do you mean?'

This may be called by pre-eminence the interrogative of knowledge, or the expression of a desire to be informed respecting some part of the world: What is man?' 'What is lightning?' 'What is the cause of the tides?'

6

24. The Adverbial Interrogatives equivalent to the pronouns are When,' 'Where,' Whence,' Whither,' and are applied in the same circumstances as those described for their use as relatives.

The compounds 'wherein,' 'wherefore,' are used as interrogatives, but not the other compounds of 'where.' 'Whether,' an old dual, was formerly applied to ask which of two:''Whether is greater, the gold, or the temple?'

REPETITION OF THE NOUN SAVED.

27

Interrogation takes place in another form, as 'Can the rush grow?' Breathes there a man?' 'Came you by the bridge?' The thing demanded may be observed to be somewhat different in these instances.

25. One of the uses of Pronouns is to save the repetition of a Noun; as 'John is come; he has not been long.' This may be effected by various other means.

6

(1.) By some more general designation, as in Milton: Thus spoke the tempter, the fiend,' for Satan. We went to see St. Paul's, and admired the vast building.'

Such general words are often advantageously combined with the relative touching musical harmony, a thing that (equal to which') delighteth all ages; a thing as seasonable in joy as in grief;'‘which consideration had some weight;' he was naturally morose, a peculiarity that I do not here take into account.' Also the relative may be dispensed with: 'the nation were unanimous, a thing (a circumstance) of rare occurrence.'

(2.) The iteration of the noun is avoided by the use of synonymes. His happiness was much enhanced by his success; but it was not in the nature of so great bliss to last.'

Under the adjective we shall see other modes of saving the repetition of the principal subject, as by former and latter,' the one and the other,' the first and the second,' &c.

It is a very insufficient definition of the pronoun to say that it saves the repetition of the noun, being wholly inapplicable to interrogatives, and to the indefinite pronouns.

THE ADJECTIVE.

1. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun, to limit its application; as my hat; a sweet sound.'

Adjectives are commonly said to name a quality. But this can hardly apply to pronominal adjectives, as this,' 'our.' Moreover in the classification of adjectives, one class is those of quality; implying that the other classes, namely, those of quantity and the pronominal, are not expressive of quality. It is better to treat them as words that go along with nouns to specify or narrow their application. For example, the word 'wise' joined to the noun man,' signifies a more select kind of man, having the distinguishing attribute termed wisdom. Thus while the extent of the noun is narrowed, its meaning is increased by the adjective: wise men' are a smaller class than *men,' but they have one attribute in addition to what is common to men.

2. An Adjective is distinguished from a noun by its

inflection, which is by degree, or what is called Comparison: wise, wiser;' fertile, more fertile.'

6

In our language, which admits the easy convertibility of the parts of speech, nouns are often used to discharge the office of the adjective; as the gold ring.' These nouns are distinguished from true adjectives by not being compared: we cannot say, 'gold, golder, goldest.' On the other hand, the true grammatical adjective does not undergo the noun inflection: we do not say 'wise, (plural) wises.' By the same criterion we can distinguish an adjective from a verb used to limit a noun; as a brew house.'

It follows from the definition, that an adjective cannot be the subject of a sentence. We cannot say 'wise is good.' A word that merely limits can have no meaning standing alone, or without a word to limit. Such cases as 'foul is fair,'' black is not white,' are not exceptions; the adjective being used for the corresponding abstract Hence when a sentence or clause begins with an adjective we understand that there is an inversion of the usual order; as 'great was the fall thereof.'

noun.

An adjective cannot qualify any part of speech but a noun. It cannot be governed by a preposition.

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES.

3. I. PRONOMINAL. These are of two kinds, Demonstrative and Possessive.,

6

The name pronominal' indicates that these adjectives (this, my, &c.) are all derived from pronouns. Indeed they have often been included among the pronouns. The reason for placing them among adjectives is that they require a noun after them, which the proper pronouns do not.

4. (1.) Pronominal Demonstratives: ‘this,'' that,'' the,' 'yon,' 'yonder.'

This applies to persons and things, and means some object near or close at hand, or nearer than some other compared object: 'this man,' some one close by; 'this house,' the house that we are in or near; 'this is my own, my native land.'

In a succession of things 'this' means the nearest-either the last said, or the next to be mentioned. 'After this speech' refers to what has just been delivered: 'I will put this supposition' is what is to come next.

'That' applies also to persons and things, and means something at a distance. 'That man' is some one not close by. This' and 'that' are correlative or contrasting words; the one excludes or opposes the other.

6

PRONOMINAL DEMONSTRATIVES.

29

When two persons or things have been mentioned, the first in order is sometimes recalled by that,' the second by this,' in imitation of the Latin pronouns ille and hic. Other forms for the same purpose are 'the one' and 'the other,' 'the first' and 'the second,' 'the first named' and the last named,' the former' and the latter.' In the following lines, these' and 'those' mean 'some' and 'others,' selected without reference to comparative proximity :

The palaces and lofty domes arose,

6

These for devotion, and for pleasure those. :

'Yon' and 'yonder' are in use for the same meaning as 'that:' 'yonder ivy-mantled tower.'

6

'The,' derived from that,' is commonly called the Definite Article. It is usually considered along with 'a' or 'an,' the Indefinite Article.

6

5. The adverbial substitutes for the Demonstrative Adjectives are the same as for the Demonstrative Pronouns, 'so,' 'thus,' 'then,' 'there,'' here' (and the com pounds, herein,' therein,' &c.), hence,' thence,' hither,' thither.' These substitutes cannot be used where nominatives are required. Here, there, lies,' are equivalent to 'in this place,' 'in that place,' &c.

Both variety and elegance are attained by the employment of these adverbs as demonstratives. The remarks made respecting 'where,' 'when,' &c., as equivalents of the relative pronouns, are applicable to the present class of words: 'here is the point;' 'there's the rub;' 'herein is love; then was the time.'

The frequent ellipsis of the noun with the demonstrative adjectives is what gives them the character of demonstrative pronouns after that, I shall say no more;' this being granted.' These adjectives also save the repetition of the main subject, by being joined to a more general noun. Thus instead of repeating the name Cæsar,' we may designate him that general,' 'that Roman,'' that conqueror.' 6. (2.) Pronominal Possessives: my,' 'mine,' 'our,' ours, thy,' thine,' 'your,' 'yours,' 'his,' her,' 'hers,' 'its,'' their,' theirs.' These are the Genitives of the Personal and Demonstrative Pronouns.

The double forms my, mine,' 'our, ours,' 'thy, thine,' 'your, yours,' their, theirs,' have distinct uses. The first form is used with nouns like any other adjectives, as 'my book;' 'your house; their liberty: the other form is employed only in predication, as 'the book is mine;' the house is not yours.' The distinction was not always observed in our language. In the translation of the Bible, thine' and 'mine' are used with nouns: 'mine eyes have seen;'mine honour,' &c. A similar difference exis s between

6