strength. What is left is regarded as sufficient to convey the intended meaning.

The Contracted Sentences above spoken of are one class of Elliptical Sentences; the part common to two or more Co-ordinate Sentences being expressed only once. Another class, somewhat more difficult, are those involving the comparative Adverbs as' and 'than.'

52. He is as tall as I am,' is in full, he is as tall as I am tall.' Principal clause, he is tall;' adverbial adjunct of the complement of the predicate, as,' (modified by the adverbial clause) 'as I am tall.'

The predicate of the elliptical or dependent clause is 'tall,' and this is compared, by means of the relative adverb 'as,' with the degree of tallness expressed in the principal clause. It is analogous to the sentence already given,-'the sea is as deep as the mountains are high.'

53. He is taller than I am,' is he is taller than I am tall.'

Principal clause, he is taller;' adverbial clause, 'I am tall than,' where 'than' (which is originally 'then') is the adverb qualifying 'tall.' 'He is taller, then (next) I am tall.'

54. He is more industrious than clever,' 'than he is clever,' analyzed thus:

I. Subject, 'he.'

III. Predicate,

{

Verb of incomplete predication, 'is,’ Complement of predicate, ‘industrious.’ VI. Adverbial adjunct of the complement, more-than he is clever’ (a), (analyzed, he is clever than'). Literally, this construction means, he is industrious more then he is clever.' There would seem to be a tautology in the English idiom, for either word, 'more' or 'than,' would have expressed the comparison.

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55. He has not written so much as I have,' is in full, so much as I have written much.' The adverb 'as' is an adverb of degree qualifying 'much' understood. 'I have written much, he has not written much (to the same degree'), is the mode of rendering the construction. Or I have written much so (compared by a certain quantity), he has not written much so (compared by the same quantity').

56. He has written more letters than you,' is in full, he has written more letters than you have written many letters;' 'he has written many letters more-then you have written many letters.'

57. He does not write so well as you (write well"); 'you write well so, he does not write well as (or so).'

58. 'I would as soon die as suffer that,' 'I would as soon die, as (I would soon) suffer that.' In other words, I would soon suffer that as, or so, I would soon die, as or so.'

59. Such as,' employed as the equivalent of the restrictive relative, is a case of ellipsis. The house is not such as I like.'

The

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house is not such as a house is that I like.' 'A house that I like is so, the house is not such (or so).'

60. I am not such a fool as to believe that.' In full, I am not such a fool as (I should be a fool) to believe that.' 'I should be a fool to believe that, I am not a fool such, or so (to the degree implied in believing that').

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61. Our habits are costlier than Lucullus wore;' than Lucullus wore costly habits,' or 'than the habits were costly that Lucullus wore.' 'Our habits are costly more then Lucullus wore costly habits.' 62. Moderation in the use of food is a better remedy than medicine (is a good remedy) for an oppressed state of the circulation.'

63. To resolve a compound sentence into the simple or complex sentences composing it, often enables us to detect a fault in its construction. Ex. Because he had committed a crime, he was shut up in prison and let out again only yesterday.' As it stands the sentence is resolvable into these two: because he had committed a crime, he was shut up in prison,' and 'because he had committed a crime, he was let out only yesterday.' It should be, 'because he had committed a crime, he was shut up in prison, and he was let out again only yesterday;' or 'and it was only yesterday that he was let out again.'

64. In the sentence 'there was a man showed me the way,' the analysis will determine exactly what is wrong. There is but one subject 'man' to two finite verbs, making up two distinct assertions. Now this is admissible only in a compound contracted sentence; but the form of such a sentence would be a man was there and showed me the way.' Every assertion, and consequently every finite verb, must have a subject, and every subject must have a predicate or finite verb. The insertion of the relative would supply a subject to the second verb in the above sentence.

CONCORD.

1. The general principles or processes regulating the grammatical union of words in sentences are three in number,-CONCORD, GOVERNMENT, and ORDER or arrangement of words.

When two connected words are of the same Number, Gender, Case, or Person, they are said to agree with one another, or to be in Concord. Speaking of a man we have to say he, of a woman she, of a plurality of persons they; these are agreements or concords.

In point of fact, these concords are already taught under Ety

mology. We have seen that 'he' means a man,' she' a woman, &c.; that when a noun is in the plural, there is a peculiar inflection of the verb to correspond with it: they call' (not calls), and also a certain inflection of the demonstrative adjectives: 'these' (not this). Hence the expressions, the trees grows,' 'those sort of things,' are errors of Etymology as well as of Syntax. What is left to Syntax is merely to explain some difficult and doubtful cases, where we are not quite sure what the number, gender, person, or case of a word really is.

CONCORD OF NOMINATIVE AND VERB.

2. A Verb must agree with its Subject in Number and in Person, and the subject of the Verb is always in the Nominative Case.

This is the rule of the concord of nominative and verb. The verb and the subject being both spoken of the same thing, they must agree with one another, otherwise there would be a contradiction in terms. If John' is the name for one individual, and write' is the form that predicates the action, writing,' of a plurality of individuals, ‘ John write' is a discord, or wrong combination.

This rule is seldom transgressed in short sentences except by persons altogether untaught. Such expressions as 'says I,' 'he do,' 'we sees,' 'the shops is not open,' are mistakes of the grossest kind. But in longer sentences, where several names occur, the verb is sometimes inadvertently referred to what is not the real subject. The following are examples of the kind of structure referred to: the origin of the city and state of Rome is involved in great uncertainty; the momentary junction of several tribes produces an army.' These are correct; but many instances of errors arising in similar constructions could be produced.

'His reputation was great, and somewhat more durable than that of similar poets have generally been.' 'Railroads seem now, however, to be likely to supersede most other methods of conveyance, in so far, at least, as the transit of goods and passengers are concerned.' The patronage which the British Colonies affords to the home government is immense.' The lighting and cleaning of the streets is not nearly so good as in the large towns of England.' 'The opinion of several eminent lawyers were in his favour.'

3. Collective Nouns, though Singular in form, take a Plural Verb if the Predicate applies to the objects taken individually; as 'the peasantry go barefooted, and the middle sort make use of wooden shoes;' 'one half of men do not know how the other half live.'

When what is affirmed of the noun is an action that can be true of the whole mass in its collective unity, the verb is then singular; as 'the fleet is under orders to set sail.' When we say the British nation has not sprung up in a generation,' we speak of the nation as

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a collective organized whole. So 'the House (of Lords, or of Commons) resolves;' the Assembly has decreed the Senate is of opinion; the army was disorganized;' 'the mob was dispersed ;' 'the invading force (army and fleet) was in progress towards Attica;' one fourth of the men at the diggings is composed of convicts.' Contrast these with the cases where the predicate applies to the individuals of the collection acting separately. The people of the rude tribes of America are remarkable for their artifice and duplicity.' Here what is affirmed applies to the individual Americans acting singly and apart. The generality of his hearers were favourable to his doctrines; the public are often deceived by false appearances and extravagant pretensions;' meaning the members of the community taken individually; 'a considerable number were induced to quit the body.' The following sentence sounds awkward, but it is strictly correct: The Megarean sect was founded by Euclid, not the mathematician, and were the happy inventors of logical syllogism, or the art of quibbling'-Tytler. In the first part, the sect is spoken of in its collective capacity; and, in the second, as individuals. There is a certain class of men who never look,' &c., may be justified on the same ground. So the people is one, and they have all one language.'

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There are a few cases where usage is not invariable. In speaking of small bodies, such as those indicated by a Board, a Commission, a Council, a Court, the plural verb is frequently used: the Board are of opinion; the Committee consider the Court are disposed.' This may be explained on the ground that the members in a body of, say two, three, or six, stand forward more prominently in their individual capacity, whereas in an assembly of three hundred, the individual is entirely merged in the collective vote. Still there are cases where a plural verb would be obviously wrong; as the Council were divided; the idea of division could in no sense be applicable to the individual members.

The following examples are incorrect: The meeting were large' (would mean that it was composed of large men); Stephen's party were entirely broken up;' 'mankind was not united by the bonds of civil society; the Church have no power to inflict corporal punishments;' in this business the House of Commons have no weight;' 'a detachment of two hundred men were immediately sent;' one man of genius accomplishes what a crowd of predecessors has essayed in vain;' not one fourth of provincial tradesmen or farmers ever take stock; nor, in fact, does one half of them ever keep account-books deserving of the name.' The following is at least inconsistent : 'when a nation forms a government, it is not wisdom, but power, which they place (it places) in the hands of the Government,' &c. A judge charging a jury, vacillated in the construction of the word. Court, thus: It was satisfactory to the Court to find that it would be incumbent on them,' &c. The Court, therefore, in the discharge of their duty.' 'The Court believe.' 'The Court is not entirely satisfied with the finding of the jury.' The Court, in the sentence which it is about to pronounce by my mouth,' &c.

.

When the form of a noun is plural, but the meaning singular, a singular verb is generally preferred: this news is not true;' ' no pains is taken;' the wages of sin is death.**

"The Pleasures of Memory was published in 1792, and became at once popular.' The pronoun in the following should be singular: His (Thomson's) Seasons will be published in about a week's time, and a most noble work they will be.' Johnson says 'my Lives are reprinting,' which it might be harsh to alter, owing to the great prominence of the notion of plurality.

But those nouns that have plural forms on account of a plurality of the subject, such as 'bellows,'' scissors,'' snuffers,' lungs,' ashes,' &c., are more usually found with plural verbs.

Although we should say, 'there are two, there are three,' yet usage permits in familiar language the singular contracted form, 'there's two or three.'— (Craik's English of Shakspeare, p. 123.)

4. If the subject of a sentence consists of two Nouns or Pronouns united by the Conjunction and,' the Verb must be put in the Plural: John and James are in the field;' Mars and Jupiter are visible.'

If the two nouns are names for the same subject, the rule does not hold; the plurality is apparent only, and not real.

"The spectator and historian of his exploits has observed.'

A laggard in love and a dastard in war

Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar.

In cases where two names almost synonymous are employed for the sake of emphasis, there is still a kind of unity in the subject, and the verb is often made singular: wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings; the head and front of his offending was this;' the hardship and exposure of a savage life speedily destroys those who are not of a robust constitution;' why is dust and ashes proud?' In such cases it is not always easy to draw the line, or to decide when the subject is singular and when plural. Fair and softly goes far;' 'poor and content is rich enough.'

A singular verb may sometimes be justified on the ground of an ellipsis: there was a hen and (there were) chickens in the court;' 'there was racing and (there was) chasing on Cannobie Lea.'

Another exception to the general rule is exemplified in the following constructions: the wheel and axle was out of repair;' a block and tackle was made use of;' 'bread and butter is my usual breakfast.' In these instances, the two things named make but one subject by their combination, called a compound subject. We may say, 'a needle and a thread were given to her, but she could not thread the needle;' and 'a needle and thread was given to her, but she could not sew the button on;' the reason of the difference being apparent. 'Hanging and beheading is the punishment of treason,' means that

* Dr. Angus would prefer the plural, as least likely to call attention to the mere grammar of the sentence: the means used were not commendable;' 'great pains were taken.'