means what can be felt; as sensible warmth:' but a sensible man' is a man possessing sense, a man of sense.' Delectable' is giving delight; comfortable,' causing comfort.

ive (the active termination): 'sensitive,' apprehensive,' 'repressive,' 'active,'' passive,'' combative,' talkative,' 'imaginative,'' commemorative,' 'forgetive.' It is an error to use these in the passive signification; as when Shakspeare says, nor the insuppressive Derivation of Verbs.

mettle.'

14. Verbs are derived from Nouns in various ways. I. By Prefixes.

be (giving the noun an active or verb force): 'becloud,' 'befool,' 'befriend,' 'beguile,' 'belabour,' 'bedew.'

en, em: 'empower,' 'embody,' 'encamp,' encompass,'' enshrine.' dis (removal, or undoing): disburden,' ' disguise,' 'dismann.' un (negation): 'unkennel,' 'unbosom, unsex.'

II. By Suffixes.

en: lengthen,'' strengthen,' 'heighten.'

1, le: muffle,'' quibble '(quip), 'kneel '(knee), 'sparkle,' 'nettle,' 'throttle.'

III. By change, (1) of Vowel, or (2) of Consonant, or (3) of both.

(1.) Gild' (gold), bleed' (blood), 'feed' (food).

(2.) 'Calve,' halve,' 'bulge (bulk), soothe' (sooth), ‘wreathe,' ‘thieve,' ́house,' 'prize' (price), shelve,' clothe.'

(3.) ‘Bathe' (bath), ‘graze' (grass), ‘glaze,' 'breathe,'‘hitch” (hook).

Many words are nouns or verbs according to the place of the accent: ábstract,' 'abstract;' áccent,' accént;'augment,' ‘augmént;' cómpound,' 'compound;' cónflict, conflict; 'contrast,' 'contrást; dígest,' digést; ímport,' 'import;' 'subject,' 'subjéct;' survey,' 'survey;' 'torment,' 'torment. These are all of Latin origin.

It has also been seen that our language permits the free conversion of a noun into a verb, and the opposite, without any change.

The general effect of these derivations is to enable the meaning of the noun to become active, or to express the fact of its being imparted to something. The chief exception is seen in the two negative prefixes, dis, un.

15. Verbs are derived from Adjectives, by prefixes and suffixes.

Prefixes.-be (to make): bedim,' begrime' (grim).

en, em (the same): endear,' 'embitter,' 'enable,"emboss.' Suffixes.-en (the same): shorten,' 'sweeten,' 'fatten,' 'blacken,' ' ripen.'

DERIVATION OF VERBS.

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er (the same) : ‘lower,' 'linger' (long), ‘hinder.'

se: cleanse,''rinse.'

By change of vowel: 'fill,' (full).

The effect of this conversion is almost uniformly to signify the imparting of the quality connoted by the adjective.

16. Verbs are extensively derived from Verbs.

1. By prefixes.-a: 'awake,' 'await,' amount,

amend.'

arise,' 'arouse,' 'abide,'

be: bestride,' 'besmear,' 'bestir,' 'besprinkle,'. ‘bedaub,' ‘beseech' (seek), 'betake.' In many instances it converts intransitive verbs into causative, and therefore transitive verbs; it also occasionally intensifies the simple verb.

dis (negative): 'disembody,' 'disbelieve,' dispraise,' 'distrust.' un (negative): 'undo,' 'unbind,' 'untie.'

mis (a kind of negation): mislead,' 'misstate,'' misplace,' 'misjudge.'

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for, fore (negative, or done in a bad sense): forbid,' 'forego,' foreclose,' forswear,' forget,' 'forgive.'

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gain (against): gainsay;' with (opposite to): withstand.' en, in (in): engrave, embody,' engraft,' inlay,' 'enfold.' re (do over again): 'retouch,' 'replace,' rebuild.' A naturalized Latin prefix.

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2.Suffixes.-er (diminutive and frequentative): glimmer' (gleam), sputter' (spit), 'batter' (beat), patter' (pat).

le, el (the same): dazzle' (daze), 'girdle' (gird), settle' (set), straddle (stride), 'grapple' (gripe), dribble' (drip); ‘gamble' (game), 'waddle' (wade), crumple (crimp).

on: 'reckon,' blazon,' 'beckon.'

ish: 'burnish.'

y: 'sully' (soil), worry' (wear).

om: blossom' (blush), gleam' (glow). These four last endings appear to have a diminutive force.

3. By modifying the vowels, or consonants, or both. 'Rise, raise;' 'fall, fell;' sit, set;' 'roll, reel;' sniff, snuff;' ' drop, drip;' rest, roost;' 'wring, wrench;' drink, drench;' blink, blench;' drag, dredge;' 'dog, dodge;' 'tweak, twitch;' wake, watch.' Most of these derivatives are causative verbs.

4. By postfixing adverbs and prepositions; as 'find out,' 'pluck out,' 'bear with,' bring in,' 'fall in,' climb up,' 'heave to,' 'despair of.' These postfixed words are to be considered in many cases as part of the verb, although not only not fused with it, like the ordinary suffixes, but susceptible of being removed to a distance by the object coming between: 'find him out;''pluck it out;' 'bring the messenger in;' send the things away.' They often acquire a meaning not explained by the separate meanings of the parts: find out' is no more to be parsed as two words than invent. Moreover, we find verbal nouns formed from them: the 'looker on,' 'entrance in,''goings out;' the climber upward' — (Shakspeare). We may

have two different meanings from the same constituents differently placed; as overcome,'' come over.'

To sum up; in deriving verbs from verbs, we have sometimes little more than a synonyme (arise); in other cases, a diminutive, or frequentative force; and in some instances an intensive effect. The causative verbs are a distinct class. But the most important derivatives are those that negative in some way or other the meaning of the simple verb.

Derivation of Adverbs.

17. Adverbs are formed principally from Adjectives, but also from other parts of speech.

By prefixes.-a (nouns and adjectives) asleep,' aground,'' ahead,' aloft (luft, left, the air), astern,' adrift,' afloat,'' aloud.'

al: almost,' 'always,' 'alone,' ' also.'

be: before,' besides,' 'betimes.'

to: 'to-day,'' to-night,' 'to-morrow.'

Suffixes.-ly (a corruption of like): softly,'' smoothly,' 'cheerily,' daily,' monthly,' 'carelessly,' &c. This is the principal mode of deriving adverbs from the corresponding adjectives.

es, se, ce, s: unawares,' 'sometimes,' 'besides,' 'mornings' (of a morning), else,' once,' 'hence,' thence,' needs,' 'outwards.' Supposed to be old genitives.

wise, ways: 'otherwise.'

om: whilom,' 'seldom.' Old datives.-n: then,' than."

re: here,' there,'' where.' ther: 'hither,' 'thither,' 'whither.' Derived from the demonstrative and relative pronouns.

Classical prefixes.-a: 'apart,' 'apace,' across;' per: 'perchance,' 'peradventure,'' perhaps.'

For the cases where adjectives appear to be used as adverbs without change, see PARTS OF SPEECH-Adverb.

The end sought in most of these instances is to obtain adverbs from other parts of speech so as to retain the original meaning of the word. In some, old case inflections appear to be used; in others, a significant syllable is joined.

Derivation of Prepositions.

18. The chief Prepositions are primitive words of the English language, and have corresponding forms in the other languages of the Indo-European class: 'of,' from,' 'to,' 'for,' 'by,' 'with,' 'over,' 'under,' &c. They are among the most fundamental roots of language, and can be traced as giving birth to very many words in the general vocabulary. A few are compound, and are derived from other Prepositions, from Nouns, or from Adjectives.

CLASSICAL PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES.

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Prefixes.-a: 'abaft,' 'aboard' (ship), 'across,' 'afore,' 'amid,' 'along,' 'around,'' against,' 'anent,' astride,'athwart.'

be (by): beside,' 'beyond,' 'behind,' 'before,' '.beneath,' 'below,' 'between' (by two).

The suffix st exists in many prepositions. Its true nature is not as yet understood, but it may be a superlative, adding intensity to the simple word: 'a-mid,' in the middle of; amidst,' in the very middle.

There are several prepositions that are the participles of verbs; as 'except,'' concerning,' regarding.' With the exception of 'notwithstanding,' these are of classical origin.

19. CONJUNCTIONS are either simple words of the language (‘and,' 'but,' 'if,' &c.), or are appropriations of words from other parts of speech; for,' nor,' that," before,' since,'' except, &c. Therefore' is a demonstrative adverb with a preposition suffixed. Because' is by cause.' Than' is derived from then,' itself an old accusative of the demonstrative pronoun.

Of Classical Suffixes.

20. The greater number of these do not need to be considered in English, except as indicating the words of classical origin. Some of those that are naturalized have been already pointed out. The following also deserve notice: 'fy,'' ize,' 'ism,' 'ist,' 'ite,' ' ion.'

fy (to make): verify,' 'personify,' 'purify,' 'glorify,' 'Frenchify,' 'terrify. This is from the Latin.

ize (the same, from the Greek): 'civilize,'' colonize,' 'localize,' utilize,'' centralize,' Anglicise,' Judaize,' 'maximize,'' sympathize,' 'fraternize.' In such a word as baptize,' the termination came to us in the word itself, but many of the others have been made up in the course of English usage; consequently this is a naturalized ending. We have thus three endings of the same force: 'en' (English), 'fy,' ize.' Euphony determines us in our selection. We could not say civilen,' colonen,' we ought to say (avoiding hybridism); 'civilify,' 'naturalify;' but we prefer, for the sake of sound, 'civilize,' 'naturalize.'

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ism (the name of a system; Greek): 'Buddhism,' 'fatalism,” monachism;' ist (the name of the follower or believer):‘Buddhist,' 'fatalist,' 'pantheist;' ite (patronymic, and also the member of a sect): Israelite,' Hivite,' Benthamite,' 'Peelite.'

ion (a form expressing action or an active faculty): perception,' 'conception,' 'imagination,' 'deduction,' approbation.' Some of these words express also the result of the action, thereby causing ambiguity on very important questions. Hence the introduction of the forms 'percept,' concept,' 'exhibit,' to express the things perceived, conceived, or exhibited, and to save circumlocution.

ana is a naturalized suffix; as 'Johnsoniana.' It is even used independently: 'a collection of ana.

་

ation: 'qualification,' 'botheration,' 'mystification,' ' celebration,', 'cerebration.'

arian: latitudinarian.'

In the sciences, as chemistry, classical Suffixes as well as Prefixes are used freely for making new words: ‘sulphate,' meta-phosphor-ic."

To assist in distinguishing words of classical origin, the following more complete list of Latin and Greek suffixes is here given. (The prefixes are given above, sect. 3.) Derivation of Nouns: (Latin) ace (populace), acy (fallacy), ade (cannonade), age (advantage), al (classical), an (publican), ance (entrance), ancy (pliancy), ar (registrar), ary (aviary), aster (poetaster), ate (consulate), bule (vestibule), cle (barnacle), cule (reticule), ee (committee), el (morsel), ence (cadence), eur (grandeur), ic (caloric), ice (service), ine (famine), ion (region), men (regimen), ment (commandment), or, our (colour), ory (armory), ped (quadruped), sor (sponsor), ure (tonsure), tic (fanatic), tive (captive), tor (doctor), try (poultry), ty (honesty), ule (globule), y (mastery). (Greek) ac (zodiac), ad (Iliad), arch (hierarch), ene (Nazarene), cracy (aristocracy), gram (telegram), graph (photograph), ian (physician), ine (iodine), isk (obelisk), ma, m (drama), meter (barometer), pod (tripod), scope (telescope), sis (crisis), sm (chasm), ete (athlete), taph (epitaph).

Derivation of Adjectives: (Latin) al (regal), an, ane (Roman), ar (polar), ary (stationary), ent (latent), eous (righteous), esque (picturesque), fic (terrific), ian (plebeian), ic (public), il, ile (fertile), ine (leonine), olent (violent), ory (obligatory), ose (verbose), ive (competitive), ple (simple), que (oblique), sive (persuasive), t (fact), te (innate). (Greek) ad (monad), ic (graphic), ical (philosophical), id (mastoid). Derivation of Verbs: (Latin) ate (criminate), eer (domineer), esce (coalesce), ish (cherish), ite (expedite). (Greek) ize.

21. Of all the purposes of forming derivatives, none is of more consequence than the signifying of negation, contrariety, or opposition. After expressing a thing, quality, or action, we need to have the means of expressing the absence or negation of the thing. This has been largely provided for in our system of Prefixes and Suffixes, but still not adequately; and it is useful to know the circumlocutions that are in reserve when these fail us.

The chief prefixes are, 'in,' 'un,' 'non,' 'n,' 'dis,' 'mis,' 're;' and the suffix is less.' The employment of these is capriciously limited; as we may see in such words as 'inconsequence,' 'unreason,' which have been suggested, but never adopted.

In some cases we have separate words for the opposite of a meaning. 'Light,' 'dark;' 'hot,' 'cold;' 'light,' 'heavy;' hard,'' soft;' ' rich,' 'poor' 'industrious,' 'idle;' north,' south;' pleasure,' 'pain;' 'action,' 'passion;' 'clever,' stupid;' 'seeing,' 'blind.' In technical and scientific language we can prefix 'not.' To signify all colours except white, we may say 'not-white;' 'me,'' not-me;' 'round,' 'not-round.'

that

The chief circumlocutions are seen in such examples as the following:That was the very opposite (or reverse) of candour;' would be anything but reasonable;' very fur from reasonable;' 'his