culture and its allied operations-acre, bacon, barrow, bread, bridle, barm, barn, bull, calf, clover, cow, corn, fallow, farm, farrow (litter of pigs), fodder, furrow, halter, horse, gander, garlic, grass, heifer, hurdle, wattle, mattock, twibill, meadow, mongrel, orchard, pig, plough, reap, runnet, saddle, sickle, sow, stirrup, tallow, udder, waggon, wether, winnow.

In the other industrial arts, we have-addice (adze), anvil, angle (to fish), arrow, bugle, coal, cobble (a boat), distaff, earn, fathom, felly (rim of a wheel), ferry, filter, furlong, habergeon, hammer, halter, halser (hawser), hamper (a basket), harbour, haven, hauberk, leather, ladder, level, madder, needle, oakum, peat, pier, raddle (to twist together), riddle (sieve), scaffenger, sempster, shackle, shuttle, slaughter, shambles, staple, swivel, target, timber, tower, turf.

Bearing more particularly upon trade and commerce, we haveborrow, buy, chapman, cheap, dear, firkin, handsel, market, monger, farthing, pedlar, penny, shilling, reckon, sell.

39. IV. The civil and religious institutions of our ancestors are indicated in their language-alderman, beadle, borough, bury, corsnead (in trial by ordeal), earl, embassy, fetter, gallows, hamlet, hustings, lady, murder, ordeal, sheriff, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Friday, Saturday, easter, gospel, hallow, holy, holiday, heathen, heaven, lammas, steeple, steward, whitsuntide, witness, wizard, worship, yeoman, wapentake.

40. National proverbs are naturally derived from our primitive speech.

6

41. The language of invective, contempt, pleasantry, humour, satire, and colloquial wit is Saxon. The strong terms, curse, darling, dastard,' 'fangle,' 'lazy,' 'nidget' (a coward), rascal,' 'shabby,' 'slut,' 'sly,' 'termagant,' 'ugly,' are of native growth.

42. The particular or individual objects of nature, as opposed to the general or abstract, are named by Saxon words. This is merely the second rule in another aspect. Thus the specific movements, 'walk,' 'run,' 'fly,' 'creep,' &c., are Saxon; but the general idea is expressed by a Latin word-motion. 'Black,' blue,' red,'' green,' 'auburn,' 'yellow,' &c., are Saxon: colour is Latin. 'Hum,' 'buzz,' squeak,' speak,' grunt,' hiss,' rustle,' sing,' 'whistle,' &c., are Saxon: sound is Latin. So while special modes of crime are Saxon— murder,' theft,' ‘rob,' ‘kill,' ‘lie,' the general terms-'crime,' 'offence,' 'injury,' are Latin. The special numbers are Saxon: the general word 'number' is Latin.

6

43. These rules must be taken with some latitude, and are not to be employed as decisive of the origin of any given word. For although the more familiar objects of sense and of the outer world are described by Saxon names, we have appropriated classical names to add to our means of expressing the same things; as face,' 'river,' 'mountain,' 'plain,' 'forest,' district,'country,' 'lake,' firmament, season,' minute,' 'animal,' 'beast,' serpent,' stomach,' 'palace,' chapel,' furniture,' garment,' harness, mutton,' family,'' commerce,' 'people,' and innumerable others.

44. It has also been seen that when articles or occupations were imported from other nations, the names, as was to be expected, came

too.

45. Then again a few of our own Saxon words have been employed as terms of the highest generality; as being,' well-being,' 'truth,' 'falsehood,'' will, feeling,' 'good,' 'evil.' 'right,' wrong.'

We

This, however, is rare. We might, like the Germans, have constrained our native vocabulary to serve for general and abstract terms, but we have preferred to derive these from the classical sources. also in many instances use a native word and also the corresponding words in Greek and Latin: 'good,' 'moral,' ethical;' "one,' unit,' monad;' truth,' 'principle,' axiom;' 'happiness,' ' felicity;' 'glue,' 'viscid,' 'colloid.'

In all such cases the Latin and Greek words serve to indicate new meanings or shades of meaning, thereby extending our vocabulary.

COMPOSITION OF WORDS.

1. Most of the words of the language are compounds. The process of composition takes place in two ways: first, by adding to the roots syllables or words, called prefixes, and suffixes or endings, which may or may not have an independent existence; as 'out-run,' 'one-ly' (only); and secondly, by putting together words each having an independent meaning; as 'break-water,' 'lion-hunter.'

As regards the first process, there are a number of recognized prefixes and suffixes habitually employed in forming compound words, nearly all of them imparting a definite signification to the compounds.

PREFIXES.

2. The prefixes of Saxon origin used for all purposes may be enumerated as follows:

:

a. (1.) a shortened form of the preposition on,' abed,' abroad,' 'abroach,' 'ado' (?), adrift,' 'afoot,' aghast,'agog,' ‘ajar,' ‘alive,' 'amain,' 'amiss,' aside,' 'aslope,' 'astir,' atop,' aweary.' This is a source of adverbs.

(2.) a shortened form of the Anglo-Saxon 'ant,' or 'an,' joined to verbs: 'abate,' 'abet,'' alight, 'allay,' arise,'' awake.' This converts intransitive verbs into transitive, or else strengthens the meaning. In 'ago' it is supposed we have the combination 'y-gone.'* all (all) always,' almighty,' alone,' although.'

after afterthought, afternoon.'

be (1) (by): before,' 'beside,' 'betimes.'

(2) Prefixed to verbs: 'become,' 'bestir,' 'befit.' Converts intransitive verbs into transitive, and adds intensity to the meaning. by (Scandinavian by, a hamlet): 'by-law,' 'by-path,' 'by-road,' 'by-way,' 'by-lane.'

by (preposition): 'by-stander,' 'by-play.'

em, en, in (Anglo-Saxon in): ́endear,' 'embody,' ' inlay,' ‘inborn,' inbred,' 'insight.'

for (the contrary), privation or prohibition: forbid,' 'for-go,' 'for-swear.'

for (before): foretell,' 'forefather,' 'forward.' ful (full): fulfill.'

mis (failure): 'misbehave,' 'mistake.' 'misfortune,' 'mishap,' &c.

Hybrids: misplace,'

n (not): n-either,' 'n-ever,' 'n-aught,' 'n-or.' on (upon): on-set,' 'on-slaught,' 'on-looker.' over (above): 'overthrow,' 'overdo,' 'overlay.' out (excelling): 'outdo,' 'outlive,' 'outrun.'

to (this) to-day,' 'to-morrow.' The day,' for 'to-day,' is a

Scotticism.

un (before nouns, adjectives, and participles has a negative force): 'unbelief,' ' untruth,' 'unwise,' 'unseen,' 'unknown.'

un (before verbs means to reverse): unbind,'' undo.'

under (a comparative of the preceding, and not to be confounded with the preposition 'under'): undergo,' 'undertake,' 'understand.'

under (preposition): undergrowth,'' underlay.'

up (upwards): upheave,'' uphold,' upstart,' uproar.' with (opposition): withstand,'' withhold,' 'withdraw.'

In the words 'lump, ‘ram,' 'rob,' 'rumple,' 'wrack,' 'rumble,' it is supposed that a prefixed letter is dropped; clump, cram,' crib,' 'crumple,' crack.' But 'slash, smash,' 'smelt, smoulder,' swelter,' shout,' 'spatter, steep,' 'stumble,' 'scrunch,'' scream,' are formed by prefixing 's' to 'lash,'mash,' 'melt,' 'moulder,' 'welter,' 'hoot,' 'patter,' 'dip,' 'tumble,' 'crouch,' 'cry.'

So 'sway,' 'swing,' 'swagger,' are considered to come from 'weigh' and 'wave.' 'Spank' is from 'bang.' Letters are sometimes added merely to strengthen the sound; thus, 'yonder,' from 'yon;' sound,' from French, son; hind' (a peasant), from 'hine;' so 'swoonded in Shakspeare; 'drownded' in vulgar speech.Craik's Julius Cæsar, p. 120.

3. There are a number of prefixes derived from the classical languages. Such of them as are still employed

'y' is an old English form of the Anglo-Saxon participial prefix 'ge,' and is seen in the old words 'y-clept,' 'y-clad.'

LATIN PREFIXES.

133

to form new compounds may be considered as English prefixes; as 'ante' in antedate.'

Some of the Latin and Greek prefixes and suffixes are known only as parts of the words that they are found in, and we never think of their separate meaning, nor employ them to make new combinations. Such are the Greek 'a' in 'atrophy,' anarchy;' 'cata' in 'catastrophe,' and many others. A good many of the Latin prefixes and suffixes, and a small number of the Greek, may be regarded as of living application, being adopted in their separate character into the English language.

The following Prefixes are from the Latin :

a, ab, abs (from): 'avert,' 'abuse,' absolve,' abstract.' ad (to): adjoin,' adhere,' attract,' 'affirm' (adfirm). ante (before): anteroom,' ' antedate,' 'antecedent.'

bene (well): 'beneficence.'

bi, bis (twice): 'bisect,' bivalve.'

circum (round): circumvent,' 'circumnavigate,' 'circumscribe.' co, con, &c. (company): 'co-partner,' 'co-operate.'

contra (against): contradict,' 'contravene.'

de (down): 'descend,' 'deplete.'

dis, di (apart): 'dissolve,' 'displace,' 'disarm,' 'disjoin, 'dis

agree.

e, ex (out): elect,' express,' 'emigrate,' 'ex-king,' 'exchange.' extra (beyond, used as a separate word): extraordinary.

in (in, into): 'inside,' 'imprint,' 'involve,' ' imprison.' Supposed to be intensive in 'improve.'

in (not), joined to adjectives: 'inactive,' 'inert,' 'impure,' 'immortal.'

inter (between): interview,' 'intercommunication.'

intro (within): 'introduce.'

non (not): nonsense,' 'non-attendance,' nondescript.'

ob, oc, of, op (against): 'obstruct,' occur,' 'offend,' 'oppose.' per (through): 'pervade.'

post (after): postdate,' 'postpone.'

præter (beside): 'pretermit.'

pro (forth): project.'

pre (before): prefix,' 'prepay,' 'prejudge,' 'preoccupy.'

re (motion from, change of place, back, again): 'recall,' 'return,' 'repay,' 'restore,' 'renew,' 'remove.'

retro (backwards): 'retrospect.'

se (apart): separate.'

sub (under): 'submerge,' 'submarine,'' subjoin,'' subdue,' subcollector.'

subter (underneath): subterfuge.'

super (over): superstructure,' superadd,'' supervisor,' 'superintendent,'' superfine."

trans (across): 'transport,' 'transalpine,' 'transplant.' ultra (beyond): ultramarine,'' ultramontane.'

The following Greek affixes may be specified :anti (opposed to): 'antichrist,' 'anti-slavery,' ' antarctic.' eu (well): 'euphony,' 'euphemism.'

hyper (over): hypercritical.'

philo (friendly to): philo-Athenian,' 'philo-Spartan' (Grote). syn (with): synthesis,'' sympathy.'

As regards the Greek prefixes generally the knowledge of them is useful only as a key to etymology; the words that they are found in being nearly always Greek words: amphi (on both sides), ampitheatre;' 'an, am, a (without), anarchy;' 'ana (up), anatomy; 'anti, ant (against), antipathy;' 'apo, aph (away from), apostle;' arch (ruler), archbishop;' 'auto (self), autocrat;' 'cata (down), catastrophe;' 'dia (through), diameter;' 'dys (difficulty), dyspepsia;' 'ec, ex (out from), exodus;' 'en, em, el (in), emblem;'epi (upon), epitaph;' eso (within), esoteric;' 'hemi (half), hemisphere;' 'hyper (over), hyperbole ;' meta (change), metaphor;' 'mon (alone), monarch;' 'pan (all), panorama;' 'para (beside), paragraph;' 'peri (around), period;' 'poly (many), polyglot; 'pro (before), programme;' pros (to), prosody.'

DERIVATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
The Noun.

4. Some Nouns are simple, primitive, or underived words. These are sometimes called roots; as 'eye,' 'ear,' 'hand,' 'foot,' cow,' sheep,'heart,' hope.'

6

These are root words as far as concerns English grammar. In the comparison of languages they may sometimes be traced to forms still more radical or fundamental. To do so is the province of comparative grammar, or philology.

5. Derived Nouns are formed from simple Nouns, from Adjectives, and from Verbs, by various prefixes. They are also formed by a change in the vowel, in the consonants, or in both. But most of the derivatives are formed by suffixes or endings, of which there are a great number both Saxon and Classical.

Nouns derived from other Nouns.

By change of vowel, or of vowel and consonant, we have such derivatives as 'kit' (from cat), 'stick' (stake), 'tip' (top), 'chick' (cock). In such cases as 'tip, from top,' we must infer from the nature of the case, or from analogy, which is the primitive and which the derivative. 'Kit' and 'chick' are abbreviations of 'kitten,' 'chicken.' These are all diminutives.

The following are the most important suffixes used in the derivation of nouns from other nouns :

Anglo-Saxon Suffixes.

dom (signifying state or quality): serfdom' (the state of the serf), heathendom,' 'martyrdom.' Kingdom' has passed from the condition of the king (kingship) to the domain of his authority. 'Freedom' and 'wisdom' are from adjectives.