SCANDINAVIAN.-GOTHIC.

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Norway, now spoken with little alteration in Iceland. The Danish invasions of Great Britain have left us a number of Scandinavian words. In the counties north of the Wash and the Mersey many of the names of places are from this source.

Arkholm (ark, a temple), Caldbeck (beck, a brook), Norbrek (brek, a steep), Grimsby (by, a town, by-law, by-path), Borrowdale (dale, a valley), Danby (dane, Dane), Orkney (ey, an island), Scawfell (scaw, a wood, fell, a rocky hill), Seaford (ford, forth, an inlet), Mickleforce (force, a waterfall), Dalegarth (garth, an enclosure), Sandgate (gate, a way), Ormesgill (Orm,* gill, a valley), Grimsdale (Grim*), Kirkhaugh (haugh, high pasture land), Langholm (holm, an island), Kelby (kell, a spring), Laurencekirk (kirk, a church), Bowness (ness, a headland), Thurso (o, a river), Scarborough (scar, a steep rock), Skipwith (skip, a ship), Ulbster (ster, a place), Sutherland (suther, soder, the south), Tarnsyke (tarn, a mountain lake), Dingwall (ding, thing, a place of meeting), Thurlow (Thor*), Woolthorpe (thorpe, drop, a village), Lowestoft (toft, a small field), Sandwich (wick, wig, wich, a creek or bay), Langwith (with, a wood).

The termination son' appended to names is Norse: Swainson,' 'Ericson.' Ulf' or Ulph,' found in proper names, is Norse for wolf.

The Scandinavian words in the general vocabulary are given in the Appendix II.

9. Various members of the Gothic stock of languages (to which Saxon-English belongs) have contributed words to the English vocabulary.

It happens that a certain number of English words are not found in Anglo-Saxon writings, but occur in Dutch, German, Flemish, &c. We thence infer that such words have been derived from those languages, although it is also possible that they may have existed in the ancient Saxon dialect that English has sprung from. We do not know the history of the actual introduction of all our foreign words.

The words derived from the Gothic languages are given in the Appendix III.

10. Words of recent introduction from the FRENCH, and more or less perfectly assimilated, have reference to military affairs; as 'aidde-camp.' 'picquet,' 'bivouac,' bayonet:' to cookery; as 'omelet,' 'fricassée,' 'entremets,' déjeûner:' to manners and pleasure; as ‘etiquette,'' naïveté,' 'ridicule,' 'grimace,' 'foible,' 'brusque,' bonhomie,' débonnaire,' 'la beau monde,' 'éclat' 'ennui,' billet-doux,' 'bon-mot,' 'bouquet,' soirée,' trousseau:' to dress; as 'vest,' 'blonde,' ' coif,' 'busk.'

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11. ITALIAN has contributed words relating to music, sculpture, and painting, with some miscellaneous words.

*Names of ancient Scandinavian heroes.

Akimbo, alert, ambassador, arquebuss, askance, askaunt, altitude, avast, banquet, bass, bassoon, bawdekin, bigot, boa, brace, brigand, brigantine, brigandine brocade, bronze, brush, bubble, burlesque, buzz, cannon, canteen, cape, caper, captain, caravel (a kind of ship), caricature, carminative, carnival, carriage, cartel, cartoon, castle, citadel, clarion, company, companion, conceit, concert, cosset, cozen, crate, crimini, crypt, cuff, cupola, curry, currier, cutlas, curtal-axe, despatch, domino, dram, embrocation, fib, fit (an attack of pain), freak (a sudden wanton whim or caprice), freak (streaked), gabion, gallant (showy in dress), galley, ganch, garnet, gazette, gotch, granite, grapple, grasp, grate, grime, grotto, grotesque, group, inveigle, invoice, langet, lanyel, list, lupines, lush, luscious, macaroni, madrigal, mend, mere, mongrel, motto, napery, napkin, nun, opera, paladin, palette, parapet, parasol, pedestal, pigeon, pilgrim, pistol, policy, porcupine, profile, punch (a stage puppet), purl, puttock, regatta, scaramouch, sketch, soprano, stanza, stiletto, stucco, studio, tenor, terra-cotta, torso, umbrella, virtuosa, vista, volcano, zany.

12. SPANISH.—

Alembic, algebra, alligator, battledoor, bezel (basil), booby, borachio, brig, calenture, canoe, caparison, capon, caracol, cargo, cask (casket, casque), castanets, chape, chill, clarinet, cochineal, cockatrice, cope, cork, corsair, crab (a windlass), discard, dismay, embargo, embarrass, filigree, fillibuster, fumadoes, gallánt (a. attentive to women), garl (v. to cleanse from dross), grange, hazard, jade, javelin, juice, lawn, levant (v.), molasses, mulatto, negro, ninny, pail, pamphlet, pawn (a common man at chess), pickaroon, pillion, pint, pit (the pit of a theatre), plate (vessels of gold and silver), potato, pounce (the talon of a bird of prey), savannah, sherry, tornado, verandah.

13. PORTUGUESE.-To carp, caste, cocoa, coil, commodore, cove, fetish, mandarin, marmalade, maroon, pagoda, palanquin, porcelain, palaver.

14. The following words are traced to the WALLOON, a dialect spoken in some districts in the north-east of France and in Belgium: -await, crank, fester, funk, harridan.

15. Swiss.-Daw, dismal, distaff, fetlock, glimpse, haggle, mart. 16. TURKISH. Bosh, caliph, candy, divan, horde, janizary, sash, tulip, seraglio.

17. ARABIC.

Admiral, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, alkali, almanac, ambergris, amulet, arrack, arsenal, artichoke, assassin, altar, azimuth, cadi, camphor, carat, chemistry, cipher, civet, coffee, cotton, dragoman, elixir, emir, fakir, firman, gazelle, giraffe, harem, hazard, jar, lemon, lute, magazine, mameluke, mattress (?), minaret, moslem, mosque, mufti, mummy (?), nabob, nadir, naphtha, nard, opium, saffron, salaam, scullion, shrub, sirocco, sofa, sultan, syrup, tabor, talisman, tamarind, tambourine, tariff, vizir, zenith,

zero.

18. HEBREW.-Abbey, abbot, amen, behemoth, cabal, cherub, ephod, gehenna, hallelujah, hosanna, jubilee, leviathan, manna, sabbath, seraph, shibboleth.

19. PERSIAN.-Azure, balcony, barbican, bashaw, bazaar, caravan, check-mate, chess, dervise, emerald, hookah, howdah, indigo, jackal, jasmin, kaffir, lilac, musk, orange, pasha, saraband, scimitar, sepoy, shawl, sherbet, simoom, taffeta, tiffin, turban.

20. HINDU.-Banian, betel, buggy, bungalow, calico, coolie, cowrie, dimity, jungle, lac, loot, mullagatawny, muslin, pagoda, pariah, punch, pundit, rajah, rupee, sandal (wood), sugar, suttee, toddy. 21. MALAY.-A-muck, bamboo.

22. CHINESE.-Bohea, caddy, congou, gong, hyson, nankeen, pekoe, satin, tea.

ANGLO-SAXON WORDS DISCRIMINATED

23. POLYNESIAN.-Tattoo, taboo, kangaroo.

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24. AMERICAN.-Conder, hammock, hurricane, jerked (beef), lama, maize, moccasin, pampas, squaw, wigwam, tobacco, tomahawk, tomata.

25. Names of PERSONS have given words :-Tantalize, herculean, philippic, hermetic, galvanism, davy (safety lamp), lazaretto, simony, macadamize, maudlin, ottoman, pander, orrery, stentorian, quixotic &c.

26. Names of PLACES, in like manner :-Arras, bayonet, currants (Corinth), copper (Cyprus), cambric (Cambray), damask, ermine (Armenian rat), guinea, japan, magnet, parchment (Pergamos), peach, (Persia), muslin (Mussoul), spaniel (Spain), worsted (Worstead).

27. For practical purposes it is useful to be able to discriminate the words of classical origin from those belonging originally to the Anglo-Saxon. This may be done to a considerable extent by the help of a few general rules.

28. I. The articles, pronouns, pronominal adjectives, numeral adjectives, prepositions, and conjunctions, are Saxon; also adjectives of irregular comparison, the simple adverbs of time and place, and the auxiliary and defective verbs.

29. II. All words undergoing vowel changes are from the Saxon. These are adjectives forming nouns by vowel changes (strong, strength; long, length); nouns forming verbs (bliss, bless); the old or strong verbs; the new verbs making vowel changes (bereave, bereft); the causative verbs formed by vowel changes (lie, lay); nouns with changes in the plurals (foot, man); words modifying the final consonant (stick, stitch).

30. III. Most words with distinctive Anglo-Saxon endings are from the Anglo-Saxon.

If we had a complete list of the Hybrids, formed by joining Saxon roots to classical endings, or the converse, such a list would give all the exceptions to this rule. These words are very numerous, and have never yet been fully collected. The following are examples :

Classical roots with Saxon endings: principally, politely, roundly, beastly; rudeness, aptness, briskness, passiveness, righteousness; artful, grateful, mindful, direful, graceful, peaceful; armless, artless, useless, motionless, cheerless, viewless, resistless; humoursome, falsehood, subscriber, martyrdom, hero-worship, suretiship, blandish.

Saxon words with classical endings:-shepherdess, songstress, wondrous, witticism, mystify, furtherance, behaviour.

31. The principle extends also to prefixes. Some of these, however, are ambiguous. Thus 'a' and 'in' are Saxon, Latin, and Greek; mid' is Saxon and Latin. But where there is no ambiguity, we may presume that a Saxon prefix betokens a Saxon word, and a

classical prefix a classical word. There are exceptions, or hybrids, as yet incompletely enumerated. The following are a few :-because, belabour, besiege, thorough-bass, thorough-paced, out-face, superfine.

The unmistakable English prefixes are, ‘al,' ‘after,' ‘be,' ‘for,' 'ful,' 'mis,' 'on,' 'over,' 'out,' under,' with.' 'Mis' is frequently joined to classical words.

When we meet with such compounds as, 'graceful,' 'peaceful,' we ought also to take notice that these roots,-grace,' 'peace,' are far more frequently allied with classical prefixes and endings; as gracious,' ingratitude,''ingratiate,' 'gratify,' 'pacify,'' appease.' If it is the habit of any word to contract classical alliances, we may presume that it is classical, unless it is recognized as a hybrid.

When we find words commencing with the prefixes contra,' 'circum,'' omni,' 're,'' retro,' 'inter,'' prop,' extra,' ob,'' pro,' super,' we may almost always take for granted that they are of Latin origin: when we find epi,' 'peri,' 'pan,' 'hyper,' 'hypo,' 'cata,' 'sym,' we may infer a Greek origin. Some of these are in hardly any case joined with Saxon roots; for example, the frequently occurring prefix 're.'

32. III. Most words of one syllable are taken from the AngloSaxon, or allied tongues. The list of exceptions, that is to say, of words of one syllable derived from the Latin, French, or Greek, is given in the Appendix IV.

33. IV. Most words of more than one syllable are of classical origin. The words of more than one syllable of Saxon origin almost all occur in the following illustrations of the things denoted by Saxon names. A few not otherwise mentioned are here subjoined :-behalf, behest, biestings, brustle, buxom, caltrop, chafer, commark (a frontier), dimple, dwindle, harbinger, hobnob, holster, leger, nether, slobber, snattock, staddle, utter, wither.

34. Provincial terms are to be assumed as not of classical origin. If not Saxon, they are Celtic, Scandinavian, or Gothic.

35. The things denoted by Saxon terms are to a great extent distinct from those denoted by names of classical origin.

36. I. From Anglo-Saxon we obtain the names connected with kindred, home, domestic life, and the strong natural feelings and their expression:-father, mother, husband, wife, friend, kindred, leman (sweetheart), widow, neighbour, henchman, carle, gaffer, gammer; home, hearth, roof, fireside, shelter, ashes, embers, cinder, smoulder, cradle, swaddle, kettle, bellows, kitchen, oven, hovel, threshold, ladle, flagon, ewer, bucket, pillow, bolster, bundle, slumber, taper, marrow, tidbit, wallet, wassail, fiddle, welcome, token, midwife, mingle, naked, early, morrow, errand, sunder, bottom, lumber, besom, gossip, riddle; (attire) mantle, pocket, tippet, breeches, drawers, stockings; (feelings) hunger, sorrow, anger, wonder, weary, bitter, tear, smile, blush, laugh, groan, weep, yearn, burden.

THINGS DENOTED BY SAXON WORDS.

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37. II. From the same source are derived the names of the familiar objects of sense, and the familiar movements of moving things-sun, moon, star, welkin, world, fire, water, day, night, morn, even, twilight, light, heat, cold, rain, snow, storm, wind, thaw, frost, cloud, shower, thunder, lightning, weather, summer, winter, harvest, hill, dale, wood, morass, stream, land, sea, billow, eddy, earth, dingle, mildew, brimstone, iron, silver, pearl, pebble; acorn, aspen, apple, barley, berry, bramble, blossom, briar, bristle, cluster, daisy, elder, elm, fennel, hemlock, honey, holly, hollyhock, ivy, kernel, linden, mallows, medlar, misletoe, mugwort, nettle, poppy, radish, sallow, sorrel, teasel, thistle, turnip, walnut, willow, yarrow; adder, barnacle, beaver, beetle, chafer, chicken, cockle, culver (a dove), emmet, eyry, feather, fish, fowl, godwit, herring, hornet, lamprey, laverock, linnet, lobster, maggot, marten, mouldwarp (a mole), otter, ousel (a blackbird), owlet, oyster, peacock, periwinkle, raven, reindeer, ruddock (a redbreast), sparrow, starling, swallow, tadpole, throstle (the thrush), turtle, weasel, weevil (an insect), worm; sit, stand, lie, walk, run, leap, stagger, stride, yawn, gape, wink, fly, swim, creep, crawl, hobble, follow; (vocal utterances) bellow, hollo, jabber, snivel, stammer, whisper, whistle.

Names of parts of the body-body, head, ear, tongue, lip, chin, whiskers, throttle, lungs, weasand (the windpipe), bosom, nipple, shoulder, elbow, finger, knuckle, midriff, liver, navel, belly, bladder, ankle, sinew, pimple, wrinkle, tetter (a scab), sight, touch, taste, smell.

Many of the familiar actions of human beings are named from the Saxon-allow, answer, behave, bluster, burrow, defile, elope, gather, gibber, giggle, grapple, harry, hearken, hinder, linger, listen, rimple, rumple, scatter, scuffle, shuffle, smother, spatter, sprinkle, straddle, straggle, swallow, trundle, tumble, twinkle (with the eyes), wander, welter, whittle, worry, wrangle, wrestle.

The more obvious qualities of natural things have Saxon names— barren, brinded (streaked), brittle, callow, comely, dingy, dwindle, enough, even, flicker, garish, ghastly, glisten, glitter, gnarled, grisly, handsome, heavy, narrow, lukewarm, pretty, sallow, uncouth. A few of the mental habits and characteristics are also namedblatant, busy, chary, cunning, dizzy, doughty, eager, earnest, fickle, frolic, froward, fulsome, gallow (to terrify), giddy, greedy, haggard, idle, leasing (lies), merry, nimble, silly, sulky, surly, stalworth, wicked.

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But for states of the mind that have not a strong outward expression, the Saxon vocabulary is very scantily supplied; such as the various modes of thought and intelligence. Think," mind,' 'believe,' trust,' and a few others are to be found, but the great mass of words for the mental operations are of classical origin.

This rule may be otherwise expressed by saying that the names of the objective world are, by preference, Saxon; of the subjective world, by preference, classical.

38. III. The kinds of industry practised by our Saxon ancestors are shown by the names that have come down to us.

Thus in agri

K