the barnicle, by a natural progress, separate beak, by which she hangs immature, and altogether insensible, because not as yet having any spark of life hitherto discovered to shine about her. Then, like the leaves in October, that leisurely drop off (since predestinated to fall), even so the barnacle drops off from the twig of the tree to which nature had fastened her, and gave her a growth and an inanimate being. Where note, to so many as providentially fall into water, protection is immediately sent them to live; but to all others as accidentally encounter dry land, such, I presume, are doomed to die without redemption. And though some of them are commissioned to live, yet how difficult is it to preserve life, when hourly sought after by the luxurious devourer." Even Conrad Gesner (called by Thomas Johnson a very learned, painful, honest, and judicious writer, and by Dr Robinson, the most learned, diligent, and faithful of any that ever meddled with the history of animals) fell into the same error. He appears to have been chiefly misled by an epistle of Turnerus. The second theory regarding the production of these birds, is that which maintains, that they are produced from a thickish slime or froth, which gathers on the surface of putrescent wood, especially fir, when floating on the sea. Thus Campden, in his description of the British Isles, makes mention of a bird, very abundant near the Isle of Man, which the English call bernacles, and the Scotch, Clakers. In like manner, the Scots Chronicles are quoted by Wormius as follows: "Ad septentrionalem Scotia plagam in mari magna reperitur lignorum copia, quibus adnascitur mirum Anseris genus, quod rostro ligno adhæret donec ad perfectionem devenerit. Claik Geese vocant quod ob mirum generationis modum omnes in stuporem convertit." And again, in Museo, page 257, this passage occurs. "De harum avium generatione variant autores. Quidam more aliarum avium per coitum propagari putant, quidam ex ligno putri nasci volunt, alii ex corruptis arboris cujusdam pomis, alii ex conchis. Quorum sententias et rationes expendere hoc loco, nostri non est instituti. Ut nihil de iis dicam, qui statuunt diversas esse aves, quæ ex conchis proveniunt, ab iis, quæ ex putridis lignis aut pomis ortum trahunt. Im mo non desunt, qui ex quovis ligno nasci juxta Hebrides putredinem concipiant." posse adstruant, dummodo in mari et undis have been somewhat dubious regardThe opinion of Scaliger appears to ing the history of these birds; some authors asserting, that he merely reports the sentiments of others, without stating his own. Not to mention what Libavius has said on this subject, we think that the passage pointed out by Graindorge is quite sufficient to prove, that in his commentaries on the books of Aristotle, he inclined to the current belief. rarior, veluti quae circumferentur de Phœ"Tertius progressionis modus naturæ est nice, verè autem de Britannici Anatibus Oceani, quas Aremorici partim Crabrant, partim Bernachias vocant, ea creantur è putredine naufragiorum, pendentque rostro à matrice quoad absolutæ decidant in subrant visendo intereà spectaculo pensiles, jectas aquas, unde sibi statim victum quæmotitentesque tum crura, tum alas." many of the ancient writers, that oysIt was the opinion of Aristotle, and from the mud; although Ovid more ters, and likewise eels, were formed wisely has it, in limo non ex limo. Indeed the generation of almost all the inferior orders of creation was very generally considered as entirely fortuitous. Nothing can more clearly prove the universality of such sentiments, than the persevering labour which was required on the part of Malphigi and Swammerdam to accomplish the overthrow of this most unphilosophical doctrine. Perhaps no one ever did of physiology on a proper basis than more to establish this important branch the great Rhedi; and yet it is true, that he who so long stood forward as the most zealous antagonist of those vicious vainly attempted to revive, was himdoctrines, which Kircher and Bonani self obliged to have recourse to an equally delusive system. He bestowed a vivifying power on the juices of those plants which produce gall-nuts, and similar excrescencies; and with a view to account satisfactorily for the origin of the insects which they contain, he forgot the principles of that theory of generation, by supporting which, in all other instances, he had rendered himself so illustrious. Rondeletius observes, that there is no occasion to be surprised at the opinion of Aristotle regarding the oyster and other testaceous animals, when in England there are birds resembling ducks, which spring from the decay "This peculiar creature," says Pontoppidan, "is of about a finger's length and a half, and an inch broad, and pretty thick; it is brown and spongy-a little curled or shrivelled like an apple when it is dryed; so that at first it may be twice the length. Its neck is tough and hollow, like the finger of a glove: when it is opened there is nothing to be seen, but some small and fine deep black filaments; these are like bunches of flax all through. The one end of the neck is made fast to the timber, in manner of a spunge; the other, or the end that blue colour, and of a substance like a Here, as in many other instances, the learned bishop shews a cautious and philosophical spirit, for which, on account of certain extraordinary things which he has related, little credit has been assigned him. We have always considered the character of Pontoppi- As an instance of the feeling to which we allude, we may mention, that in Nor way it is the custom, during the summer months, to drive the cattle to places called sæters, among the mountains, for the sake of pasture. There they are tended merely by shepherdesses, who, from the remote situation of their huts or shealings, might be considered as too much exposed to the dan. gerous attacks of the bear, and other fierce have been fond of reflecting on the exaggerated statements of the mental powers of the animal creation, generally with a view to exalt our ideas of the wisdom of the Deity manifested towards his creatures. He possessed indeed all the piety of Ray, Derham, or Paley, though unequal to these men in the rigour of his inductions. But we must leave this digression. The testimony of Giraldus is sufficiently decided regarding the last mentioned origin of the bernacle: "Vidi multoties oculis meis plusquam minuta hujusmodi avium corpuscula in littore maris ab uno ligno dependentia, testis inclusa et jam formata." And Scaliger, though not so fortunate as to have been an eye-witness of this incipient transformation, mentions both the bird and the shell which produces it. The authors whom we have hitherto mentioned, have treated this subject merely in a cursory manner, and as it were en passant. There was, however, a distinct treatise written on the subject, by Michael Meyerus, under the title, De Volucri Arborea, in which that author zealously, and we may say successfully, endeavoured to maintain the popular origin of the animals. It is currently reported in the coun- Infamous hills, and sandy perilous wilds; By grots and caverns shagg'd with horrid shades, She may pass on with unblenched majesty, macreuse. The most curious thing in the history of this production is, that by a public sentence pronounced on it in the Sorbonne at Paris, it was declared, that for the reasons therein contained, these geese were no longer to be considered as birds, and were therefore allowed to be eaten in Lent, and during all fasting seasons. This is not the only instance of a law of nature being set aside by a religious edict. It is, however, rather amusing to observe, that the birds (or fish, as they are considered), which are allowed by the Catholic Church, are all of the flat billed kind, which, feeding less upon fish (properly so called) than upon shell-fish, grain, and various other substances, have a much more delicate and palatable flesh. The flavour of such kinds as feed solely on fish, is, as Ray has well observed, "rank, ferine, and piscose," which would probably have been sufficient to exclude them from the Pope's bill of fare, even if they had not been, according to the Bishop of Beauvais, a most learned Dominican, "nais de la chair." Certain it is, that such as may be eaten without offence, are much less fishy in their composition than the tridactylous web-footed birds, and the mer gansers. Some time also will probably elapse before the Pope feels inclined to dine upon a cormorant. Here follow parts of a relation concerning bernacles, by Sir Robert Moray, one of his Majesty's council for the kingdom of Scotland, published in in the year 1678.* upon the shore a cut of a large fir-tree, of "Being in the Isle of East, I saw lying about 2 foot diameter, and 9 or 10 foot long; which had lain so long out of the water, that it was very dry: and most of the shells that formerly covered it, were worn, or rubbed off. Only on the parts that lay next the ground, there still hung multitudes of little shells, having within them little birds perfectly shaped, supposed to be barnacles. These shells hang at the kind of filmy substance, round, and hollow, tree by a neck longer than the shell, of a and creased, not unlike the windpipe of a fastened to the tree, from which it seems to chicken, spreading out broadest where it is draw and convey the matter, which serves and the little bird within it. for the growth and vegetation of the shell, "This bird, in every shell that I opened, as well the least as the biggest, I found so curiously and completely formed, that there Phil. Trans. vol. xii. p. 925. appeared nothing wanting as to the external parts, for making up a perfect sea fowl; every little part appearing so distinctly, that the whole looked like a large bird seen through a concave or diminishing glass, colour and feature being every where so clear and neat. The little bill like that of a goose, the eyes marked, the head, neck, breast, wings, tail, and feet formed; the feathers every where perfectly shaped, and blackish coloured; and the feet, like those of other water-fowl, to my best remembrance. All being dead and dry, I did not look after the inward parts of them. But having nipt off and broken a great many of them, I carried about twenty or twenty-four away with me. The biggest I found upon the tree, was but about the size of the figure here representing them. Nor did I ever see any of the little birds alive, nor met with any body that did. Only some credible persons have assured me, they have seen some as big as their fist." The only other quotation which we consider it necessary to make, in order to complete the relations given of these birds by the older writers, is a very amusing one, prefixed to Bellenden's Translation of Boece's "History and Croniklis of Scotland," which, on account of its minuteness and curious style, we shall give at full length. This venerable person seems to have been equally fortunate with some of the preceding authorities, having had ane notable example schawin afore his een." "Nestis now to speak of the geis generit of the see namit clakis. Sum men belevis that thir clakis growis on treis be the nebbis. Bot thair opinion is vane. And becaus the nature and procreatioun of thir clakis is strange, we have maid na lytyll lauboure and deligence to serche ye treuth and verite yairoff; we have salit through the seis quhare thir clakis ar bred, and fynd, be great experience, yat ye nature of ye seis is mair relevant caus of thair procreatioun than ony other thyng. And, howbeit, thir geis ar bred mony sundry wayis, thay are bred ay allenarly be nature of the seis. For all treis that ar cassin in the seis be process of time apperis first worme etin, and in the small boris and holis thairof growis small wormes. First, thay schaw thair heid and feit, and, last of all, thay schaw thair plumis and wyngis. Finally, quhen thay ar cumin to the just mesure and quantite of geis, thay fle in the aire, as ither fowlis dois, as was notably provyn in the yeir of God, ane thousand iiii hundred lxxxx, in sicht of mony pepyll besyde the Castle of Petslego ane gret tree was brocht be allusion and flux of the see to land. This wonderful tree was brought to the lard of the ground quhilk sone efter gart devyde it be ane saw. Apperit thair ane multitude of wormis throwing thaym self out of syndry hollis and boris of this tree. Sum of thaym war rude as thay war bot new schapin. Sum had baith heid, feit, and wyngis, bot thay had na fadderis. Sum of them were perfect schapin fowlis. At last the pepyll havund ylk day this tree in mair admiration, brocht it to the kirk of Sanct Androis beside the town of Tyre, quhare it remains zit to our days. And within two zeirs after hapnit sic ane lyk tree to cum in ye firth of Tay, besyde Dunde, worme etin, and hollit full of zoung geis, in the samen maner. Sicklike in the port of Leith, beside Edinburgh, within few zeirs after hapnit sic ane lyke cais. Ane schyp, namit the Cristofir, (after that scho had lyin iii zeris at ane ankir in ane of thir isles,) was brocht to Leith. And becaus hir tymmer (as apperit) failzett scho wus brokin down. Incontinent apperit (as afore) al the inwart partis of hir worme etin, and all the hollis thairof full of geis, on the samyn maner as we have schawin. Attoure gif ony man Cristofir was made of sic tries as grew wald allege be vane argument, that this allenarly in the Ilis, and that all the rutis and treis that growis in the said Iles, are of that nature to be finally be nature of the seis resolvit in geis, we preif the cuntre thairof be ane notable example schawin Maister Alexander Galafore our een. Be thir and mony loway, person of Kynkell, was with us in ernist besynes to serche the verite of thir thir Iles, gevund his mynd with maist obscure and mysty dowtis, and be adventure liftit up ane see tangle hyngand full of mussil shellis fra the rute to the branchis. Sone after he opnit ane of thir mussill schellis, bot thair he was mair astonist than afore, for he saw na fische in it, bot ane perfit schapin fowle, small and gret, ay efferying to the quantite of the schell. This clerk knawing us richt desirus of sic uncouth thingis, cum haistely with the said tangle, and opnit it to us with all circumstances afore rehersit. other reasonis and examples we can not beleif, that thir clakis are producit by ony nature of treis, or rutes thairof, bot allenarly be the nature of the oceane sea, quhilk is ye caus and production of mony wonderful thingis. And becaus ye rude and ignorant pepyl saw oftymes ye frutis that fel of ye treis (quhilkis stood neir ye see), convertit within schort tyme in geis, yai belevit that yir geis grew upon ye treis hingand be yair nebbis, siclik as appillis and ither fruitis hingis be yair stalkis, bot thair opinion is nocht to be sustenit. For als sone as thir appilis or fruitis fallis of the tree in the see flude, thay grow first worme etin, and, be short proces of time, ar all alterit in geis.” Such were the opinions entertained regarding the origin of these birds, which, for several centuries, passed as currently as the most received axiom in philosophy. It now only remains for us to mention, that the two birds, whose singular history we have traced, do not, as supposed by Sir Robert Sib bald and others, belong to the same species. We have ourselves referred to them somewhat indiscriminately, as, indeed, the distinctions which subsist between them, were, for the most part, unknown to the writers whom we have quoted,-most of whom regarded the oye d'Ecosse, claik goose, or barnacle, as synonimous with the French macreuse. The former (Anas Erythropus) is now well known,-it bears no resemblance to the macreuse, and could never have been confounded with it had not the principle of fortuitous generation been equally applied to both. The latter was for a long time considered, as well by M. Cattier as our own Willoughby, to be synonimous with the greater coot of Bellonius, an opinion which prevailed till such time as the birds themselves were brought over from Paris by Mr Charlton, whom Dr Tancred Robinson calls 66 a most curious and worthy gentleman." It was found to be the Scoter, or black diver, a species distinguished in the Linnæan nomenclature by the name of Anas nigra, and still called macreuse by the French.* CHRISTIAN WOLF, A True Story. From the German. THE arts of the surgeon and the physician derive their greatest improvements and discoveries from the beds of the sick and the dying. Physiologists draw their purest lights from the hospital and the madhouse. It becomes the psycologist, the moralist, the legislator, to follow the example, and to study with like zeal dungeons and executions, above all Some ornithologists have been of opinion, that the macreuse is the same as the puffin of the Scillies and Isle of Man; it has also been referred both to the Colymbi and Mergi; but these opinions are sufficiently refuted in Dr Robinson's observations, and in Mr Ray's letter, published in the 15th vol. of the Philosophical Transac tions, pp. 1036 and 1041. VOL. III. courts of justice, the dissecting rooms of guilt. In the whole history of mankind, there is no chapter more abounding in instruction, both for the heart and the intellect, than that which contains the annals of their transgressions. In every great offence some great power is set in motion; and that machinery which escapes observation in the dim light of ordinary transactions, when its operations are commanded by some stronger passion, gains from their influence the distinctness of colossal magnitude. The delicate observer, who understands the mechanism of our nature, and knows how far we may venture to reason by analogy from one man to another-from great guilt to small-may learn much from contemplating these terrible displays. By those who study the hearts of men, at least as many points of likeness as of contrast will be discovered. The same inclination or passion may display itself in a thousand different forms and fashions, produce a thousand apparently irreconcilable phenomena, be found mixed up in the texture of a thousand characters, apparently of the most opposite conformation. Two men may, both in action and character, be essentially kindred to each other, and yet neither of them for a moment suspect the resemblance. Should men, like other departments of the kingdom of nature, be at any time so fortunate as to find a Lin næus, one who should classify them according to tendencies and inclinations, how would individuals stare at the result of his labours? how, for example, should we be astonished to find some quiet paltry shopkeeper arranged under the same head with a Borgia, just as we find the edible and the poisonous heads of Fungus classed together in the manuals of Botany? Nothing can be more useless, more absurd, than the manner in which history is commonly written. Between the strong and excited passions of the men of whom we read, and the calm meditative state of mind in which we read of them, there exists little sympathy. The gulf between the historical subject and the reader is so wide, that things which ought to excite in our breasts emotions of a very different character, are passed by with We a far-off shudder of unconcern. shake the head coldly when the heart 4 R |