spirit of conquest and civilization could now speculate on these countries so varied and different in aspect.

Shortly afterward, Captain Binger showed up the empty hypotheses concerning the Kong Heights and, removing the prejudice which gave to the Ivory Coast colonies and Dahomey the petty importance of coaling stations without distant relations with the hinterland, proved in 1887-89 that there were as many "doors to the Sudan" as France possessed territory on the West African coast, from the mouths of the Senegal to those of the Niger; and the absolute necessity of joining up the whole of the Sudan, the Senegal and the Niger, the rivers at the south and the Guinea coast became obvious. From 1890 to 1901 (a period fertile in good results) a logical plan for colonial expansion was methodically carried out. In Senegal, Guinea, the Ivory Coast, and later in Dahomey, successful efforts were also made for territorial expansion, similar care being taken to draw the rich products of the hinterland toward the ports. Hereafter no doubt could remain concerning the economical future of the recently acquired colonies. The future of the Ivory Coast hinterland was no longer uncertain since the capture of Samory by Captain Gouraud on 29 Sept. 1898, following on the campaigns of Colonel Archinard. Since the two expeditions resulting in the defeat of Behanzin (1892-94) and since the settlement of the latent conflict between Great Britain and France regarding the borders of Lower Nigeria and Dahomey, the commercial future of the old kingdom of Dahomey could be unreservedly considered. The Brosselard-Faidherbe, Madrolle and Paroisse missions had proved as regards the Fouta-Djallon the importance of a commercial route terminating at Conakry. Certain missions excellently carried out across the Sahara resulted in the linking up of extreme South Algeria with the Kongo on the one side and French Sudan on the other.

While explorers traveled over the new regions, signing treaties with the native chiefs, and officers occupied (sometimes peaceably, sometimes by force of arms) territory which later on was to form French West Africa, French diplomacy did not remain passive, but turned these efforts to account to get the European Powers to recognize the countries placed under French influence. The FrancoEnglish treaties of 10 Aug. 1889, 5 Aug. 1890, 25 Jan. 1895, 14 June 1898 and 8 April 1904, were completed by fixing frontier boundaries in agreement with Spain (27 June 1900), Germany (24 Dec. 1885 and 23 July 1897), Portugal (12 May 1886) and Liberia (8 Dec. 1892 and 18 Sept. 1907). Hereafter from the south of Morocco and Algeria to the Tchad "West Africa" was master of its own destinies. Very soon, however, the progress of French developments in Sudan obliged France to take steps to repress the troubles fomented by the Moors in the territory on the right bank of the Senegal. The progressive occupation, which it was desired to carry out in a spirit of pacificism, of the regions covered by the treaties of zones of influence was decided upon; the Moors, however, were hostile to the organization of Mauretania and numerous incidents took place such as the murder of Coppolani, the government's commissioner, in May 1905 and the Akjoucht

VOL. 12-6

fighting. But whatever might be the extent of these disturbances and however painful the unforeseen consequences sometimes are, regional troubles are always bound to arise, which, however, by their very nature are easy to localize, if not so easy to repress, and it is not necessary to have recourse to those punitive expeditions of which Continental France, moreover, has never had the monopoly. From a geographical point of view, the aspect of the coasts of French West Africa is very varied: the coasts are bordered with sand banks against which the waves break from Cape Blanc to the estuary of the Casamanca; rocky and much cut up in Guinea; bordered with lagoons on the Ivory Coast and at Dahomey. French West Africa is relatively flat; the mountainous region is situated in Guinea and extends from the Fouta-Djallon to the Kong country: this is the most salubrious part of the colony. West Africa is divided into two quite distinct river basins: the Senegal and the. Niger, both of which have their source in the Fouta-Djallon and follow for some distance the same direction, the former toward Cape Vert where it flows into the sea after joining the Falémé and the Baoulé and watering Kayes, Bakel, Matam, Salde, Podor and Dagana,-the Niger flows toward the end of the Gulf of Guinea which it reaches after describing a wide curve on which are situated Toulimandio, Koulikoro, Segousikoro, Sansanding, Mopte and Kabara, one of the three ports of Timbuktoo.

The ethnography of West Africa is as yet difficult to determine in a scientific manner; the type of white man we find there comprise the Berbers, who live in the desert zone and are called Touareg in the Sahara; there is a red African type composed mostly of Feulhs or Foullenes from Senegambia, distant cousins of the Egyptian "fellahs," which is a mixture of the African negro type and the Berbers; finally, there is the black type of infinite variety from the Ouolofs, from Lower Senegambia, which represent the negro type in all its purity, the Sonikès, nomads, the Mandingues, intelligent but warlike and given to pillage, to the Achantis of the Ivory Coast, Dahomenians and Haoussas of Upper Dahomey.

In organizing the immense territorities which the valor of her explorers and the efforts of her politicians had assured for France, it seems evident that the fascination of empty words and the superstition of formulæ were not allowed to prevail; it would have been regrettable not to have resisted any such temptation when dealing with populations so greatly dissimilar as those of West Africa. When, in 1899, it was proposed to establish an embryonic organization in what was later to be known as The Guinea, The Ivory Coast and Dahomey, it appeared necessary to separate them administratively from The Senegal to which they had been hitherto connected under the name of "Southern Rivers and Dependencies." very shortly the mutual interests of the local governments became evident and a decree of 16 June 1895, which created the General Government of French West Africa, instituted a supreme authority which could, by reaching a decisive opinion on the spot, make the general interest override any particular tendencies of such and such a colony of the group. But the transformation was insufficient, as was also

But

that effected later by decree of October 1902. It seemed an opportune moment to make a further step toward a more rational and profitable organization of the vast French West African possessions, and by a decree of 18 Oct. 1904, making the general government the instrument for the permanent direction and control of French West Africa by placing at its disposal, through the creation of a general budget, the necessary financial aid for its expenses in the common interest and to represent the civic dignity of West Africa, it was hoped that the general government would be able to develop the possessions in a normal manner.

The decree of 18 Oct. 1904 regulates the present organization of the general government. The immense territories to be controlled by the government have an extent of 3,913,250 square kilometers (1,510,795 square miles), comprising five colonies and a civil territory:

1. Senegal, capital Saint Louis

2. Upper Senegal and Niger
3. Guinea, capital. Koncary

4. Ivory Coast, capital Bingerville
5. Dahomey, capital Porto-Novo

6. Civil territory of Mauretania

The governor-general holds mandatory powers from the French Republic and his residence is at Dakar. He is assisted by a council. The colonies forming the group enjoy administrative and financial autonomy; each one is administered, under the superior authority of the governor-general, by a governor of the colonies whose title is lieutenant-governor and assisted by a secretary-general. The civil territory of Mauretania is administered by a commissioner of the governor-general of French West Africa. In the organization of West Africa, the question of improving the moral and general situation of the natives has received the constant attention of the administration. Evidence of this is found in the contracts passed between natives, in the improvement of the situation of natives, the organization of public education, the development of public hygiene and the medical aid rendered to the natives. West Africa is above all an agricultural country; it is therefore not surprising that agriculture has reached quite an advanced stage among these people so primitive in some respects. The produce of the land may be classed in two categories: agricultural products and food products, or in other words, those which are cultivated with more or less care; and the products of the forests. First among the agricultural products figure the arachide, or peanut, which has so enriched Senegal and the cultivation of which even extends to the Sudan. Practically the entire exportations of fruits and grains from Senegal to the Sudan consists of this product. If it is borne in mind that it was only about the year 1840 that this culture was started, its rapid development is seen by the export figures for the year 1913, which show, for Senegal, 229,961,605 kilogrammes (231,500 tons), for Upper Senegal and Niger, 8,577,135 kilogrammes (9,175 tons), and for Guinea 3,541,106 kilogrammes (3,714 tons).

The climate of French West Africa is suitable for producing cotton, the type of which has not yet been improved all-round, but which nevertheless can be used in the metropolitan workshops. From the results already obtained

great hopes may be placed in the future of this cultivation. Upper Senegal and Niger, the Ivory Coast and Dahomey have, moreover, eommenced to export a certain quantity of cotton. Dahomey exported in 1913, 171,173 kilogrammes (376,580 pounds) of cotton wool and 37,740 kilogrammes (83,028 pounds) of unseeded cotton; the Ivory Coast exported 18,221 kilogrammes (40,086 pounds) of cotton wool and Guinea 60,517 kilogrammes (133,137 pounds) of unseeded cotton. Kapok exported about 33,000 kilogrammes (72,600 pounds). The dâ grows wild in the Sudan and produces beautiful fibres. The growing of agave has several times been seriously attempted by the Europeans in Senegal. Sorgho or large millet has been greatly cultivated in the West African colonies; it has been said, not without truth, that "millet is to Africa what rice is to Asia." Another variety of millet is also found, the little millet or sania, or "mil chandelle» (wax millet). There is also a fairly considerable local trade in rice, cultivated more particularly in Upper Guinea, in Casamanca and in the inundated countries of the Middle Niger; there were 11,584 kilogrammes (25,485 pounds) of rice exported from Guinea in 1913. Manioc is more especially cultivated in Dahomey, the Ivory Coast and in Guinea; at the present time it is only used for local consumption, but when seriously taken up as a commercial proposition it will give considerable traffic to the railways. Sweet potatoes are found everywhere. Maize is cultivated particularly in Dahomey and locally serves as a food, but its cultivation for exportation is only carried on by the natives and therefore merits attention; the exports from Dahomey alone reached 13,256,193 kilogrammes (14,582 tons) in the year 1913.

Bananas form the principal food for the inhabitants of the Ivory Coast. Copra is exported from the Ivory Coast and Dahomey. Coffee is a product of Guinea where the "Rio Nunez," with its rather small beans, of a dirty yellow with brilliant pellicles, is much appreciated on account of its special aroma, and on the Ivory Coast, where its export reached a figure of 10,637 kilogrammes (23,401 pounds) for 1913. The cultivation of cocoa, attempted with much success by the natives in the English colonies of the Gold Coast and Nigeria, has been developed in Dahomey and above all on the Ivory Coast which respectively exported in 1913, 10,651 kilogrammes (23,432 pounds), and 47,190 kilogrammes (103,818 pounds).

Among the principal products derived from the forests, rubber holds one of the foremost places, the territories producing it being Guinea, the Ivory Coast, the Sudan region and Casamanca. No definite choice has yet been reached as to which rubber trees should be cultivated but it would seem that the Funtumia will give good results, and accordingly the administration has taken steps, principally on the Ivory Coast, to protect this tree against a too extensive exploitation. The French markets of Bordeaux and Havre, new to this commerce, receive a fairly large quantity of African rubber, but Liverpool also receives an important supply. The exports for the year 1913 were the following: Guinea, 1,455,450 kilogrammes (3,210,990 pounds); Ivory Coast, 4,684,095 kilogrammes (10,305,009 pounds); Upper Senegal and Niger,

83,300 kilogrammes (183,260 pounds); Senegal, 90,421 kilogrammes (198,926 pounds); Dahomey, 5,105 kilogrammes (11,231 pounds).

The Ivory Coast and Dahomey are the colonies which export the greatest quantity of palmetto; this is abundant in the coastal region which 1S not dominated by the large forests. During the year 1913, Dahomey exported 7,971,220 kilogrammes (17,536,684 pounds) of palm oil, the Ivory Coast 6,014,460 kilogrammes (13,231,812 pounds), and Guinea 164,221 kilogrammes (361,286 pounds); for the same period Dahomey exported 26,371,438 kilogrammes (58,017,163 pounds) of palm almonds, the Ivory Coast 6,949,206 kilogrammes (15,288,253 pounds), Guinea 5,172,165 kilogrammes (11,378,763 pounds), Senegal 1,901,024 kilogrammes (4,182,252 pounds). Palm oil and palmetto are used principally in the manufacture of soap and stearine and are dispatched to Marseilles and England; a considerable quantity of these products was also sent to Germany. Ivory Coast is the richest as regards forest lands. The forests in this colony only have been most carefully explored by M. Auguste Chevalier, Directeur du Laboratoire d'Agromomie Colonial au Musée de Paris, who has made a thorough botanical classification of the different kinds of wood, and who estimates the wooded area at over 120,000 square kilometers (46,332 square miles). This area is very rich and valuable woods, the only ones which have been cultivated for many years, foremost among which is mahogany suitable for diagonal grained work and for decorative - panels. Since then, many other samples have been experimented with and it now appears certain that commerce in general and the cabinet-making trade in particular will find on the Ivory Coast, the former, woods supplanting oak and teak which are lacking and of lengths and widths to which they have not been accustomed; the latter, new woods of beautiful shades which will enable satisfaction to be given to all customers' tastes. Wood exports from the Ivory Coast amounted in 1913 to 52,700 tons, representing a value of 5,000,000 francs ($1,000,000).

The kola business has been developed considerably by the natives and every day sees a more and more extensive use of it since the consumption of alcohol is no longer permitted on account of the growing prevalence of Islamitic beliefs. It is exported to Europe in ever-increasing quantities, as fresh fruit, to be consumed mostly in the form of extracts or wine tonics. In the year 1913 Dahomey exported 21,808 kilogrammes (47,977 pounds), and the Ivory Coast 24,090 kilogrammes (52,998 pounds).

Karité is found practically all over the West African possessions but principally in Upper Senegal and Niger, which, by the Kayes Railway and the river Senegal, makes large exportations of this fatty matter extracted on the spot by the natives. The exportation of karete butter reached, in 1913, for Dahomey 169,841 kilogrammes (373,650 pounds), for Upper Senegal and Niger 27,565 kilogrammes (60,643 pounds), for the Ivory Coast 8,787 kilogrammes (19,331 pounds), and for Guinea 3,899 kilogrammes (19,331 pounds). The exportation of karité almonds from Upper Senegal and Niger, exclusively reached 474,624 kilogrammes (1,044,172 pounds).

Finally, gums, exuded by different trees of

the acacia genus, are concentrated at, and dispatched from, one place, i.e., Saint Louis, from whence it is all shipped to France, the port of destination being Bordeaux. The exportation for 1913, for Senegal, amounted to 2,943,379 kilogrammes (3,238 tons), and for Upper Senegal and Niger 532,157 kilogrammes (585 tons).

Cattle breeding plays an important rôle, and is destined to play even a greater one, in the prosperity of the West African colonies. It is therefore necessary to encourage this industry in countries where lahor is scarce, and with a view of procuring on the spot the necessary cattle for food for the European and the native. The principal centres are Senegal, the Sudan, Guinea and Dahomey, where horses, asses and bovidæ are found. The bovidæ are found more especially in Mauretania and Sudan Sahara. The raw skins of oxen, sheep and goat form an important exportation; in the year 1913 exports amounted to 1,010,743 kilogrammes (2,223,034 pounds) for Guinea, 802,931 kilogrammes (1,766,448 pounds) for Senegal, 211,405 kilogrammes (465,091 pounds) for Upper Senegal and Niger, and 50,333 kilogrammes (110,732 pounds) for the Ivory Coast. The trade in wool from Macina (Upper Senegal-Niger) is relatively recent, but it is beginning, however, to be put on a proper commercial basis, and its exportation amounts to 250,000 kilogrammes (550,000 pounds). Certain wild birds (ostriches, herons, marabouts) furnish valuable feathers. Wax is prepared in Gambia, Casamanca, Boubdou and the surroundings of Thiès and its exportation exceeded 180,000 kilogrammes (396,000 pounds) in 1913. The foregoing enumeration of the principal agricultural, forestral and animal products of French West Africa will give an idea of the variety of cultivation in the West African colonies, but although confidence can be placed in the future agricultural development of the colonies it must be recognized that no industry at present exists there in the real meaning of the word.

The West African colonies are far from being known from the point of view of geology and mineralogy, despite the highly scientific work of M. Hubert. The raw materials principally exploited are gold and salt. God is found in Upper Senegal where its production is estimated at approximately 800,000 francs ($160,000) yearly, and in Upper Guinea and the Bambouk region where gold from Falémé and Galam has been exploited since 1858 by the government. In 1913 the exportation of gold for this group of colonies amounted to 255,635 francs ($51,127). Salt is of two kinds: sea salt from the coast where the Gandiole salines constitute a fairly important output for Senegal; rock salt from the interior to the north of the town of Timbuktoo. Each year there enters into Upper Senegal-Niger, emanating from the Sahel and Sahara, an average of 80,000 bars of salt. The mining industries of this group of colonies have been the object of special legislation both as regards prospecting and operation of mines.

The fishing industry ranks next to the mineral industry. Fishing is at present practised over the entire west coast, but more particularly in Senegal and Dahomey. The coasts of Senegal and Mauretania have long ago been recognized for their ichthyological richness; the re

tons in 1910 of a value of 63,000 francs ($12,600). Wood for cabinet making is exported to an amount of 24 tons valued at 5,500 francs ($1,100).

Bulky foods (yams, potatoes, carribee cab-. bages, etc.) are practically all used for local consumption. The administration has decided to encourage new cultures, principally the growth of coconuts and lemons, as much to provide against inconveniences caused by dependence on a single crop as to develop the resources of the colony. In normal times France receives nine-tenths of the production of the lands of the colony.

The dependencies of Guadeloupe include: Désirade, a rock of little productive capacity; Marie Galante with Grand Bourg, a fairly safe anchoring ground; the Saintes Archipelago, a mass of rocks which have been given the name of "The Gibraltar of the West Indies" on account of their high strategical importance; Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin, of which France possesses two-thirds: Saint François, Sainte Anne and Port Louis.

Martinique. Martinique was discovered by Christopher Columbus on Saint Martin's Day. The Spaniards did not settle there and the natives remained in possession of the island until 1625. At this time Pierre Belain of Esnambuc, while returning from a cruise in the Gulf of Mexico, obtained from Cardinal de Richelieu authority to constitute the "Compagnie des Iles d'Amérique; on his return to Saint Christopher he endeavored to colonize the neighboring islands and landed at Martinique on 1 Sept. 1635. In 1650 the Compagnie des Iles d'Amérique sold its islands for £60,000 to Duparquet who became their lord and master. On his death, war broke out between the French and the Caribs, which ended in the extermination of the latter. In 1664 the Crown purchased the islands from the heirs of Duparquet and ceded its rights to the Compagnie des Indes Occidentales. During the succeeding years, Martinique was attacked by the English and the Dutch, which resulted in the dissolution of the Compagnie and the return of the islands to the Crown. Cultivation was undertaken but very soon Martinique had other serious preoccupations and for more than a century was obliged to defend herself against the furious onslaughts of her enemies. In 1762 the island fell into the hands of the English who restored it to France one year later on the signing of the Treaty of Paris, but at the price of the loss of Canada. In 1793 the Royalist party surrendered the island to the English who kept it until the Peace of Amiens was signed. The English reoccupied it during the Empire Wars of 1808-14 and finally during the "Hundred Days." Since the treaty of 20 Nov. 1815 Martinique has always remained French and after the abolition of slavery in 1848, by a number of laws not affecting however its colonial life it has participated more and more in the public life of the mother country as one of her possessions.

Martinique which has an area of 987 square kilometers (385 square miles), the greatest length of which is 70 kilometers (44 miles) and the average width 31 kilometers (20 miles), is divided into two parts two peninsulas united by the isthmus which is situated between the "cul de sac" of François and the "cul de sac"

of Fort-de-France. Its mountain range really consists of two high peaks, one in the north and one in the south, connected by a small chain of mountains much less in height. All these mountains, which bear the name of "peaks" or "knolls» are of volcanic origin and we need scarcely recall here the awful calamity caused by the eruption of Mount Pelée in September 1907 which completely devastated the southern part of the island. Cyclones similar in character to those which play such havoc with the other West Indian islands do not spare Martinique and they are generally accompanied by a tidal-wave.

From a political point of view, Martinique is divided into two districts, the capitals of which were until 1902 Fort-de-France and Saint Pierre.

Commerce, Trade, etc.- Exportations amounted in 1913 to 28,896,814 francs ($5,779,362) out of a total trade of 51,041,129 francs ($10,208,225). In this total products from the land figure to an amount of 25,900,000 francs ($5,180,000). Sugar-cane is the principal crop of the island, the exportation for 1913 amounting to 40,000 tons, which is slightly higher than that of 1912. The exportation of rum, which occupies the second place in the trade of the island, amounted in value to about 7,000,000 francs ($1,400,000) in 1912, rising in 1913 to 12,000,000 francs ($2,400,000) for 18,823,000 litres (4,973, 026 United States gallons). Next in importance is the cultivation of cocoa which is exported in berries to an amount of 524 tons of a value of 1,071,000 francs ($214,200). Coffee beans are exported to the amount of 9,587 kilogrammes · (21,091 pounds), valued at 23,932 francs ($4,786). Vanilla figures for an exportation of 3,259 kilogrammes (7,169 pounds), representing 76,373 francs ($15,274); cinnamon 1,875 kilogrammes (4,125 pounds), valued at 1,234 francs ($246). The fresh-fruit trade has not yet attained that importance of which it is capable (40,675 francs, $8,135); the principal fruits exported being bananas (10,000 francs, $2,000); pineapples (15,000 francs, $3,000) and oranges (1,400 francs, $280). Oil from Indian wood is a fairly active industry, the results for 1913 being 2,649 kilos (5,827 pounds), representing a value of 23,495 francs ($4,699). In the category of farinaceous products, fecula and potatoes show exportations of 11 and 77 tons, respectively. The manufacture of citrate of lime is no longer in the experimental stage and the results obtained are highly satisfactory, the exportation amounting to 2,000 kilogrammes (4,400 pounds). All the citrate is shipped to England.

France accounted for 51.4 per cent of the trade movement in Martinique in importations, and 93 per cent in exportations; business with other countries amounts to 46.08 per cent and 3.78 per cent of the importations and of the exportations, respectively.

FRENCHMAN'S BAY, Maine, an ocean inlet in Hancock County, extending northward about 30 miles with a width of about five miles. It contains a number of islands, among them Mount Desert, whereon is situated Bar Harbor (q.v.).

FRENCHTOWN, Md., in the War of 1812. As part of the British operations on Chesapeake Bay in 1813, Sir George Cockburn was sent to close its head. Establishing himself first