have been the most artistic of the native gemcutters of the period. The best-known engraver in England in the first half of the 19th century was Benedetto Pistrucci (b. in Rome 1784); his two daughters Elena and Maria Elisa practised the art in Rome. Notable 18th century engravers are Antonio Berini, a native of Rome, who with Cervera and Giromelli at Rome, and Putinati, at Milan, produced very fine works. In our own times the demand for cameos and intaglios in the United States was greatest from 1870 to 1880. During that time more than 100 workmen found employment here, many of them as portrait artists. Among these was Lebrethon, who had as a pupil our great sculptor, Augustus Saint Gaudens; another, Zöllner, who engraved some fine and important cameos, took up brass working. Perhaps the greatest artist and the most active, L. Bonet, has to-day scarcely one-sixth of his time occupied, whereas in the "Cameo Age" he required the aid of nine assistants. Some excellent work has been done in New York by Ottavio Negri, formerly of Rome. In 1903 there appeared a slight revival of the wearing of antique and old-fashioned cameos of rather a pronounced form, and quite possibly the glyptic art is destined to experience a return of popular favor.

A few of the famous collections of engraved gems are the Rev. C. W. King collection of antique gems, of the types used in his works, and the Cesnola and other collections, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York city; a fine collection at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts; while the Walters collection, at Baltimore, Md., contains many of the finest gems in America. In Europe the first rank is taken by the collections of the British Museum, of the Cabinet des Medailles (Bibliothèque Nationale), Paris, and of the Imperial Museum in Vienna, to which must be added the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle, and those of the Uffizi Gallery at Florence, of the National Museum at Naples, of the Hermitage in Petrograd and of the Antiquarium, Berlin.

In the course of the centuries, almost all precious stones, as well as some other substances, have been utilized by the gem-engravers. It has already been noted that some of the oldest Babylonian cylinders, engraved from 5,000 to 5,500 years ago, were of shell. Of the stones, the earliest to be used was soft serpentine, but soon the harder serpentines, aragonite, lapis-lazuli, chalcedony, the jaspers, quartz crystal, anhydrite, marble and hematite, as well as, rarely, jade were utilized. To these must be added, for cylinders of later date, certain other materials, such as micaceous iron, gneiss and blue and green glass. Among the Hittite, Assyrian, Cypriote, Syro-Hittite, Sabean, Phoenician, Early Persian and Sassanian cylinders, appear, in addition to the materials already mentioned, red and pink sard, rose quartz, carnelian, matrix-emerald, the blue chalcedony called saphirine, and steatite, besides basalt, iron ore and iridescent glass. The J. Pierpont Morgan collection contains examples of all these materials. In the collection of Babylonian and Assyrian cylinders gathered together by the present writer for the Morgan collection of the American Museum of Natural History in New York are to be found the following materials: Ruin agate, amazon-stone,

serpentine, hematite, aragonite, lapis-lazuli, jasper, shell, rock crystal, steatite, anhydrite. the translucent chalcedony with round red spots that has been called "Saint Stephen's Stone," jaspery agate, marble and amethyst. For their engraved scarabs the ancient Egyptians especially favored lapis-lazuli, carnelian, hematite, red and green jasper, garnet, amethyst, and green feldspar, as well as red porphyry and basalt.

A few specimens of royal Babylonian cylinders exist, one of the more interesting being in the J. Pierpont Morgan collection. It is of green serpentine, dates from about 2450 B.C., and is inscribed with the name of Gudea, ruler of Lagash (Shirpurla), and with that of "Abba the scribe, thy servant"; thus it bears both the name of the one who stamped the royal seal on a document or record, as well as that of his sovereign. Another royal seal in this collection, one made of black serpentine, is engraved with the name of Ine-Sin, king of Ur, about 2700 B.C., and who styles himself "servant of the god Adar." Still another Babylonian cylinder is notable as well for its material as for design and inscription. It is of jade (nephrite) and dates from the period between 2000 and 1500 B.C. On it is figured the goddess Ishtar, one foot advanced and resting on a lion, or dragon; above her shoulders rise the shafts of arrows from the quivers on her back. In one hand she holds the Babylonian caduceus, with its two serpents, in the other the serpent scimitar. Facing her is the god Martu, followed by the goddess Shala. The inscription proves that this was the seal of Imgur-Sin, who was "The anointer" in the temple of Belit (Ishtar), and who proclaims himself "the servant of the goddess Bau," consort of the god Ningirsu.

In Græco-Roman and later times, while many of the precious materials in early use were still employed by engravers, we have engraved emeralds, such as that in the ring of Polycrates, as well as engraving on aquamarine and other beryls. To these must be added sard, sardonyx, nicolo and onyx, which have been used more often for engraving than any other stones. Carnelian, almandine and other garnets, notably the fiery-red pyrope garnet often designated "carbuncle," have been also highly favored, as was topaz. Still other stones used were amethyst and other quartz gems, as well as turquoise, jacinth, plasma and infrequently opal. The corundum gems were more sparingly employed, as their great hardness defied the tools of the earlier engravers, and they were not favored, though very occasionally used, in the Renaissance period, as was even the diamond (q.v.), partly because of the mechanical difficulty of engraving on them, and partly because of the value and beauty of the unengraved stones. Still we have, as far back as the later Roman period, the signet of the Eastern Emperor Constantius II (317-61), engraved on a sapphire weighing 53 carats. It is worth noting that shell, the earliest material used by the engravers, was the one most employed in the revival of interest in cameocutting in the first half of the 19th century, and one that was freely used in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Bibliography. d'Agincourt, J. B. S., 'Sculpture'; Mariette, P. J., Traité de Pierres

Gravées'; Bellerman, Urim und Thummim, die ältesten Gemmen'; King, Antique Gems and Rings,' 'Handbook of Engraved Gems'; Middleton, The Engraved Gems of Classical Times'; Cicognara, 'Storia della Scultura'; Natter, Traité de la Méthode Antique de Graver en Pierre Fine, Comparée avec la Méthode Moderne'; Babelon. Le Cabinet des Antiques à la Bibliothèque Nationale'; Ward, William Hayes, Cylinders and other Ancient Oriental Seals (in the library of J. Pierpont Morgan); Osborne, Duffield, Engraved Gems'; Dalton, O. M., Catalogue of Engraved Gems of Post-Classical Periods in the British Museum.'

The legend of the diamond tells how Diamond was the name of a beautiful youth of the island of Crete, who was one of the attendants of the infant Jupiter in his cradle. Diamond, not to be subject to "the ills that flesh is heir to," was transformed into the hardest and most brilliant substance in nature. The diamond among the ancients had the virtue of bestowing victory and fortitude. It calmed anger and strengthened wedded love; hence it was called the stone of reconciliation. The diamond, too, among the Greeks, was a symbol of severe and inexorable justice and of the impassibility of fate. Hence the judges of Hades were described as having hearts of adamant.

GEMSBOK, gěmz'bok, a large South African antelope (Oryx gazella), gray in general hue, but along the back, on the hindquarters, and along the flanks the color is deep black. It has a short erect mane, a long sweeping black tail and long sharp-pointed heavy horns, nearly straight from base to tip, and obscurely ringed throughout the lower half. It is asserted that the gemsbok never drinks water, the moisture which it needs being obtained from the succulent bulbous plants on which it feeds. It is one of a group of large antelopes, including the oryx, beisa and addax, which are sometimes called the gemsboks, and the numbers of all

which are rapidly diminishing toward extinction. See ANTELOPE.

GEMÜNDER, August, ow'goost ge'mündě, German-American violin-maker, brother of George Gemünder (q.v.): b. Ingelfingen, Würtemberg, 1814; d. New York 1895. He studied the art of violin-making with Vuillaume at Paris. From 1846 to 1860 he was at Springfield, Mass., where he won wide recognition for his violins; and in 1861 established his business in New York. His most important work was a copy of an Amati owned by Pablo Sarasate, the well-known Spanish violinist, who declared it equal to the original instrument.

GEMÜNDER, George, German-American violin-maker, a brother of August Gemünder (q.v.) b. at Ingelfingen, Germany, 1816; d. New York 1899. He was a pupil of Baptiste Vuillaume of Paris, came to America in 1847, won the first prize with his violins at the Crystal Palace exhibition, London (1851), and in 1873 sent to the Vienna exhibition a copy of a Guarnerius declared by the jury of experts to be an original. It is said that his were the finest violins yet made in America. He published 'George Gemünder's Progress in ViolinMaking) (Astoria, N. Y., 1881).

GENALA, jā-nä'la, Francesco, Italian statesman: b. Soresina, Cremona, 1843; d. 1893. He studied law and was admitted to the practice of his profession at Florence, where he resided after 1862. He organized the city finances there and in 1871 published his wellknown work, 'Rappresentanza proporzionale.' He entered the Chamber of Deputies as a member of the Left; was made Minister of Public Works in 1883 under Depretis and again under Giolitti in 1892-93. He originated the plan for the lease of the national railways to private corporations which was adopted in 1885.

GENAVA, See GENEVA.

GENAZZANO, ja'nat-sä'no, Italy, town in the province of Rome, situated in the Sabine Hills, 25 miles east of the capital. It is the seat of I Capello della Madonna del buon Consiglio, a renowned place of pilgrimage, and contains also the ancient castle of Colonna. Pop. 4,200.

GENDARMES, or GENS D'ARMES (zhon'därm), Fr. plur. of gendarme, meaning man-at-arms. The Gens D'Armes are horse soldiers in full armor when they first appear in history. They were originally mounted lancers, attended by five inferior soldiers, who were furnished by the holders of fiefs; these were replaced by Charles VII's compagnies d'ordonnance, which were dissolved in 1787, one company gendarmerie being retained as the bodyguard of Louis XVI. Since the French Revolution, except for a short interval at the Restoration, the gendarmes have constituted a military and rural police, which superseded the old maréchaussée, and comprises both cavalry and infantry; divided into legions and companies, and these latter into brigades, the organization of the force corresponds to the territorial divisions of the army. The men receive higher pay than the rest of the army, of which, however, the corps is a part, its members being drafted from the line for this service. Germany also since 1808 has had its gendarme. See POLICE.

in

this idea, the word cynn had to be added to it, thus forming the collective noun manncynn, mankind, a strictly non-gender word, in its original conception. The wæpenmann, the weapon being, was the male being, or man, the modern sense of the word. Here we see how adjectives, which were expressive of activities of the nouns to which they were attached, came, in some languages, to have masculine and femine forms. Wapen being the symbol of militant man, came to have the adjective meaning of male or masculine; and wapenlic was manlike, or masculine. Wifa, in Anglo-Saxon signifies woman; but wifechild is a female child or girl. A being that, while human or endowed with animal life, is yet neither male nor female, that is a hermaphrodite, is called wæpenwifestre, that is an armed female or a male-female.

GENDER, in grammar, a difference in the forms of words to express distinction of sex, whether real or fictitious. Some languages are rich in such forms, others are altogether lacking in them. In the strictly grammatical sense of the word the latter languages are without gender. Primarily there are only two genders, masculine and feminine, corresponding to the natural divisions of sex, male and female. In very early times man seems to have regarded all the world as animate, even the rivers and clouds, the sun, moon and stars, and the still more inanimate things such as earth, sticks stones, the atmosphere, sunshine, fire and water, light and darkness. Abstract qualities, too, were considered as living and very active beings. All nature being animate to the mind of primitive man, there was no room in his world for more than two genders, masculine and feminine, corresponding to the male and female beings of his associations or of his imagination. As he never pictured anything as being inanimate he could have had no conception of or use for a neuter gender. It was only when man began to doubt that some of the forms of nature were endowed with life and volition that the necessity arose for grammatical forms to express this difference. Many of the more primitive languages, notably those of the American continents, have never reached this latter stage. Most grammarians class these latter as having no gender; but they really form the best examples of primitive gender making. A language does not necessarily require to be primitive to be in this stage. But it is necessary that the people using it shall not have passed beyond a certain stage of development; for language is the reflection of the mind of thinking man. As the mind becomes more complex it invents grammatical forms to express this complexity of thought and relationship. Primitive gender was expressed in a very simple manner, generally by attaching to the common noun, the word "man" or "woman," "male" or "female" or their equivalents. Thus man-child, womanchild, male-child, female-child, are true cases of gender, since they are grammatical distinctions in the use of words. In this early stage of a language a word might be of common gender; but it was never neuter, in the sense that implies the absence of the distinction of gender or of the masculine or feminine qualities. The gender was simply expressed as common or more properly, disregarded on occasions when no necessity arose to assert the male or female attributes of the object designated. In the course of time, as man's conception of the true condition of inanimate nature changed, it is probable that the less active words became neuter, expressing the idea of no sex and, later still, no volition; while those expressing living beings who did not enter actively or seriously into man's life were expressed by the common word alone without the gender designation. But before this happened a long period of evolution had to take place. Even in such a highly developed and inflected language as Anglo-Saxon, not only are the primitive gender forms strongly in evidence, but also the forms by which the idea of neutrality in gender are expressed are plainly in evidence. The word mann was still of common gender; but it did not express the human race, since to convey

In the strictly grammatical sense, English is a non-gender language, as it possesses no form of words distinctive of sex. Boy represents a male being, girl a female being; but there is no grammatical form assumed by either word which enables us to say that it is masculine or feminine. In order to arrive at this knowledge we must go beyond the province of grammar and find the meaning and use of each word. It is customary to say that boy is of the masculine gender because it represents a male being; but this is equivalent to saying that a thing is what it is because it is what it is. It is an admission of the fact that modern English grammar has no forms of words by which it distinguishes sex; and that, if we wish to distinguish the sex of the being represented by any definite word we must have recourse to our own knowledge of its meaning or, in default of this, to the dictionary. We know that wife is feminine because it represents a female being; but we do not know this by virtue of its grammatical form. In the Latin languages, on the contrary, the grammatical distinction is practically always in evidence. Thus, for example, "esposo," in Spanish is husband and "esposa" is wife. The "o" ending denotes the male being and the "a" the female being. Our grammatical knowledge tells us that the one is masculine and the other feminine without the necessity of knowing the meaning of either word. Here grammar is independent of the dictionary. "Criado" is masculine because it has the grammatically masculine termination "o" while "criada" is feminine because it has the grammatically feminine termination "a." To arrive at this conclusion it is not necessary to know in advance that "criado" is a male servant and "criada" a female servant. The word servant has, in English, no form to express gender; and to convey the idea of gender we have to have recourse to the old English method of prefixing to it words indicative of sex, as for example, man-servant, maid-servant, womanservant, girl-servant. If this method were used consistently throughout, then the English language might properly be said to possess grammatical gender. Our lack of true grammatical gender is shown in our recourse to such expressions as man child, male child, boy pupil, girl pupil, man teacher, male teacher, woman teacher, female teacher. These efforts are the survival of a very ancient method of the language used to express grammatical

gender. But they now exist only as curious survivals of the past and as an almost negligible exception to the rule that English is a nongender language.

Old Gender Forms.-There linger in the English language many old forms reminiscent of its early history and its long transitional period. Some of these indicate grammatical gender in a fragmentary way. Some are reminiscent of the German affinities of the tongue while others are of Latin or Greek origin. Fox takes the feminine vixen; the feminine of wizard is witch, and that of widower is widow. These and a few others are gender forms of Germanic origin; but they only constitute exceptions in the general consideration of English gender. A number of words form the feminine by the addition of -ess to the masculine. These generally indicate grammatically the feminine gender but not the masculine. In count, countess, for example, the gender of countess is plainly indicated by the form of the word-ending. But this is not so as regards count, the gender of which can be fixed only by first ascertaining the meaning of the word itself. Not only does this list of words indicate only partially the gender of the words contained therein, but it is in origin not English at all. It is extended to a comparatively small list of words, and even they are barely domesticated in the language. The same is true of the whole list of Latin and Greek gender terminations in English. They are strangers in a foreign land and their influence is negligible because they are so few in numbers, and they have not been able to put off their strange dress. This dispenses with the very few gender forms of nouns which are practically all of foreign origin and distinct from those of the older English tongue.

true

Gender of Pronouns. It is a common assertion of grammarians that the personal pronouns in English afford evidence of gender; but this is far from being the truth if gender is considered as a purely grammatical distinction. It is impossible to tell by the form of the words I, we, you and they whether the person to which they refer is male or female. It is only in the third person that something like true gender is found in he, she, it, his, hers, its. But the plural forms they, their's are devoid of gender terminations or inflections. All the other forms of personal, relative, demonstrative and possessive pronouns are similarly without true grammatical forms indicative of gender.

In older English, adjectives and certain verbal forms were declined to indicate gender, but these distinctions have now disappeared so completely that there does not survive a single exception to prove the ancient rule.

To sum up, therefore. True grammatical gender, as a general rule, does not exist in English. Not a single neuter word has a grammatical termination of English origin indicative of the fact that it represents an inanimate thing. Practically no names of male beings have distinctive grammatical inflections by which it can be at once recognized that they represent male beings. The terminations of the few feminine designations that may be said to indicate true gender in English are all of foreign origin, and their use has had practically no influence on the position

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of gender in the language. There is no gender evident in the p.onouns in English except in the third person singular of personals and possessives, and even these forms have now become arbitrary, so that the meaning of the pronoun itself, in each case, has to be first determined before its gender can be ascertained. Adjectives, gerunds and other verbal expressions have no grammatical forms in English indicative of gender. English, therefore, in the proper grammatical sense of the term, is a genderless language.

Bibliography. Abbott, E. A., A Shakespearian Grammar (New York 1909); Alexander, C. A., 'Grammatical System of the English Language) (Boston 1796); Ash, John, "Grammatical Institutes' (Boston 1785); Baker, J. T., Correct English (Baltimore 1907); Barrett, S., Principles of Grammar? (Albany 1848); Brown, Goold, 'The Grammar of English Grammars' (New York 1851); Latham, R. G., A Handbook of the English Language (New York 1870); Lewis, W. D., Practical English for High Schools (New York 1916); Metcalf, R. Č., English Grammar (New York 1894); Murray, Lindley, 'English Grammar) (1795); Sweet, Henry, A Primer of Historical English Grammar (Oxford 1902); Swinton, W., A Grammar Containing the Etymology and Syntax of the English Languages (New York 1879).

JOHN HUBERT CORNYN.

GENDER, a Javanese musical instrument. It consists of a row of parallel metallic plates supported horizontally by two strings passed through the respective nodal lines of the plates. Underneath each plate is an upright bamboo, containing a column of air of such a height as to reciprocate the sound of the plate above.

GENDRON, zhon'drôn', Auguste, French painter: b. Paris 1818; d. there, 12 July 1881. He was long a pupil of Delaroche, and several times visited Italy, where he painted his first important works. In addition to several canvases, including The Island of Cythera'; 'Tiberius at Capri'; 'Sunday in Florence 15th Century,' he executed frescoes in the Louvre and the church of Saint Gervais.

GENEALOGY (from the Greek genos, race, and logos, discourse), the systematic account of the origin, descent and relations of families is an auxiliary of historical science. Genealogical knowledge becomes important in a personal or legal view, when family claims are to be established. Genealogy is founded on the idea of a lineage or family. Persons descended from a common father constitute a family. Under the idea of degree is denoted the nearness or remoteness of relationship in which one person stands with respect to another. A series of several persons, descended from a common progenitor, is called a line. A line is either direct or collateral. The direct line is divided into the ascending and descending. The ascendants are called, in general, majores (ancestors), and the descendants posteri (or posterity). The collateral lines comprehend the several lines which unite in a common progenitor. They are either equal or unequal, according as the number of the degrees in the lines is the same or different. The collateral relations on the father's sire are termed agnati, on the mother's cognati. Chil

dren stand to each other in the relation either of the full blood or the half blood, according as they are descended from the same parents, or have only one parent in common.

For illustrating descent and relationship genealogical tables are constructed, the order of which depends on the end in view. In tables the object of which is to show all the individuals embraced in a family, it is usual to begin with the oldest progenitor, and to put all the persons of the male or female sex in descending, and then in collateral lines. Other tables exhibit the ancestors of a particular person in ascending lines, both on the father's and mother's side. In this way 4, 8, 16, etc., ancestors are exhibited. The tables showing the succession of rulers contain merely the descent of the persons who have reigned in succession, or who have claims to the government. In connection with them stand the tables of disputed succession, which represent several lines of a family, or several collateral families, in order to deduce their rights of succession from their degree of relationship. Synchronical tables consist of the genealogies of several families placed together, in order to compare, with facility, relationships, marriages, divisions of inheritance, etc. Historical genealogical tables differ from mere genealogical tables, as they attach to the descent the biographies also of the members. The common form of genealogical tables places the common stock at the head, and shows the degree of each descendant by lines.

The earliest genealogical tables are perpetuated in the Biblical family records of succeeding generations, in graven stone memorials of ancient Egypt, Assyria, Persia, India and other Oriental countries. Genealogical knowledge was most important in the Middle Ages, when the nobility was distinct from the other classes. Ancestors were unblushingly and imprudently fabricated, the absence of criticism and the desire to flatter important people causing the introduction of the most absurd fables into genealogy, especially after the 14th century. Few families, no matter however distinguished and noble, can trace their ancestry beyond or even as far as the middle of the 11th century. The advance of civilization and particularly the institution of corporations and guilds in the towns of the principal European nations afforded a wider scope for genealogy, and in the 12th and 13th centuries family names began to be more common. The oldest trace of family names according to Gatterer is in 1062 when a Henricus de Sinna is mentioned in Schannat's "Buchonia Veteri." After history in general had attained a more systematic character, the Germans in particular treated genealogy on a more scientific basis. Ruxner's "Turnierbuch (1527) and Reusner and Hennings' genealogical tables which appeared about the end of the 16th century, are among the earliest published works, but are not conceived in an historical spirit. Duchesne, Saint Marthe, Hozier, Chifflet, Lancelot le Blond, etc., in France, and Dugdale in England, initiated a clearer and more accurate treatment of the subject. The first genealogists in Germany to base the science on documentary evidence were Rittershusius of Altdorf (d. 1670) and Spencer of Wittenberg (d. 1730). The lines laid down by them were followed and carried to higher

perfection by König, Von Imhof, and especially by Hübner in his Genealogische Tabellen' (4 vols., 1725-33; new ed., 1737-66), to which Lentz added Erläuterungen' (Elucidations, 1756), and Sophia, queen of Denmark, SupplementTafeln (1822-24). Gatterer founded the scientific treatment of the subject in his 'Abriss der Genealogie) (1788), and was followed by Pütter in his Tabulæ Genealogica' (1798), by Koch in his Tables Généalogiques) (1808), Voigtel (1810), Hopf (1861), Von Behr (1870), Cohn (1871), and Oertel (1871), all in Ger

many.

The principal genealogical MSS. sources in Great Britain are the public records, heraldic registers and the parish registers of births, marriages and deaths. The chief printed collections of genealogical information are the well-known Burke, Debrett, and other like publications of "Peerages, Baronages, Baronetages and County Histories."

In the United States, genealogy was generally neglected until the latter part of the 19th century, when the organization of patriotic, State and colonial societies, like the Society of the Cincinnati, the Holland Society of New York, the Southern Society, etc., aroused an interest in genealogy. Genealogical societies have been organized in several States and the subject has received more or less attention. New York society folks in 1901-02 began to take up genealogy as a special fad or hobby and numbers of persons adopted the study of family trees as a regular employment. The principal publications in the United States on genealogy are The New England Historical and Genealogical Register'; The New York Genealogical and Biographical Record'; The Heraldic Journal; the various biographical dictionaries and cyclopædias; the printed transactions and archives of State and city historical societies; county, State, city and town histories.

GENÉE, zhe-na', Adeline, Danish ballet dancer: b. Aarhuus, Jutland, 1878. In 1886 she made her first public appearance and in 1895 became first dancer at the Royal Opera House, Copenhagen. She appeared subsequently in Berlin and Munich and in 1897 was engaged for 10 years at the Empire Theatre, Leicester Square, London. There she appeared with great success in all the ballets brought out under the management of the Empire. In 1908 she appeared in New York in 'The Soul Kiss' and toured the United States and Canada in that ballet. She returned in 1909, 1910 and 1912. In 1911 she appeared in London and in 1913 toured Australia.

GENEE, Richard, German composer: b. Danzig 1823; d. Baden 1895. At first he studied medicine but soon abandoned it for music and went to Berlin where he studied under Stahlknecht. He became a successful orchestra leader, successively at Riga, Reval, Cologne, Aix, Danzig, Düsseldorf, Mainz, Schwerin, Amsterdam, Prague and Vienna. He composed several operettas, which were highly successful. They include 'Der Geiger von Tirol (1887); 'Der Musikfeind,' 'Die Generalprobe (1868); Rosina) (1868); 'Der Seckadett (1876); Der schwarze Prinz' (1887); Im Wunderlande der Pyramiden'; (1887); 'Die letzten Mohikaner) (1887); 'Die