warte (Breslau 1879); 'Verzeichnis der Elemente der bisher berechneten Kometenbahnen' (Leipzig 1894).

GALLEGO, gă-yā'gō, Juan Nicasio, Spanish poet: b. Zamora, 14 Dec. 1777; d. Madrid, 9 Jan. 1853. He was possessed of great natural poetical talent; but he was careless and, in a sense, indolent so that his life's work does not correspond to his talents. Graduated from the University of Salamanca, he entered the Church and became Court chaplain in 1805. It was in Madrid that he became acquainted with Quintana and Cienfuegos and other men of literary and other note. This friendship encouraged him to literary exertions, which were broken by the entrance of the French into Madrid in 1808. On this occasion Gallego wrote 'El dos de mayo,' one of his best known poems. Losing his position on account of the political changes at this time, he soon became noted as one of the best poets of Spain. His burning patriotism and love of independence coupled with his fight for the freedom of Spain appealed to the nation; and his compositions were passed from hand to hand throughout the land and read in every household. On the return of the French to Madrid, Gallego went to Seville and from there finally to Cadiz; where he seems to have led a rather active existence until the return to power of the Spanish government in 1814. In 1810 he was elected deputy from the Isle of León to the Cortes and he gave so much attention to his political duties that he had apparently little time left for literary work. On account of this political activity, he was imprisoned for 18 months on the return to the throne of Fernando VII, in a public prison, after which he was sent to Cartuja de Jerez, where he was held until 1816, when, owing to his ill health, he was taken to La Luz Monastery at Moguer, and later to Loreto Convent in Seville, where he remained until he was freed by the revolution in 1820. Shortly afterward he was appointed Archdeacon of Valencia, a position he held until he was deposed by royal order, in opposition to the laws of the Church, and on account of his former political activities, and he was compelled to go to Barcelona, then held by the French; and from there he went to France on the retirement of the French. Later on he returned to Spain and was appointed Canon of Seville.

The

GALLEGOS, gäl-ya'gōs, Argentina, a river and city in the extreme southern part. river rises in the Latorre Mountains and empties into the Atlantic Ocean; length 160 miles. The city is near the mouth of the river in Santa Cruz Territory and has a population of about 5,000.

GALLEIN, găl'e-in (Pyrogallolphthalein), a coal-tar color used in dyeing. Formula, C20H10O7. Obtained by heating for some hours one part of phthalic anhydride with two parts of pyrogallol from 190° to 200°, then dissolving the fused mass in alcohol, precipitating with water, and recrystallizing from dilute hot alcohol.

GALLENGA, gäl-len'gä, Antonio Carlo Napoleon, Italian publicist and historian: b. Parma, Italy, 4 Nov. 1810; d. Llandogo, Wales, 17 Dec. 1895. He left Italy in 1831 by reason of political disturbances in which he took a

part. He visited the United States and France. Returning to Italy he became more deeply involved in political intrigue. Finally he again became exiled because he could not agree with the policy of assassination held to by his party by which he had been selected to murder Charles Albert, king of Sardinia. Going to London (1843) he was elected to the chair of Italian literature in University College. He took part in the insurrection in Italy in 1848; and he returned in 1854; and was a member of the Italian Parliament 1858-64. He was long the London Times' special correspondent in Italy. His works, many of them issued under the name of "L. Mariotti," include Italy, Past and Present' (1841-49); Castellamonte, an Autobiography) (1854); Mariotti's Italian Grammar, which went through 12 editions; History of Piedmont' (1855-56); 'The Pearl of the Antilles' (1873); and several books of travel.

GALLEON, a name formerly given to a very large kind of a vessel, with three masts and three or four decks, such as those used by the Spaniards in their commerce with South America, to transport the precious metals. They were large, clumsy, square-sterned vessels, having bulwarks three or four feet thick, all of which were so encumbered with tophamper and so overweighted in proportion to their draft of water, that they could bear very little canvas, even with smooth seas and light wind.

GALLERY, in architecture, any of various rooms, corridors, platforms, etc.: (1) A corridor or long, narrow room, sometimes serving as a means of access to other parts of a house; especially, a covered space for walking, partly open at the side; in English country houses, a main corridor having a continuous row of windows on one side. Galleries of this class include the low, paneled halls of the old châteaux and manor houses, particularly English houses of the 16th and 17th centuries; here were kept family portraits, arms and armor, trophies of the chase, banners, fine furniture, bric-a-brac, etc. (Compare (4) below). Belonging to this class also are such galleries as the one connecting the Sainte Chapelle with the Palais de Justice at Paris and the one connecting the Palazzo Pitti with the Palazzo Vecchio at Florence. (2) A long, narrow platform, balcony or passage projecting from a wall and open at the outer side except as having a balustrade or railing; especially, a passage either within the thickness of a wall, or supported on corbels, having its open side toward the interior of a building and serving both for ornament and as a means of communication. It is connected in some intimate way with the architectural design of the building. To this class belong the triforium and external galleries of many Gothic churches. These galleries are often filled with statuary, as the galerie des rois at the cathedrals of Paris and Amiens and at the ruined cathedral of Rheims. (3) A platform, supported by columns, brackets, or the like and projecting from the interior wall of a building, as a church or theatre, usually to provide additional room for an audience; specifically in a theatre, the highest of such platforms, containing the cheapest seats. (4) A room, typically long and narrow, or a building, for the exhibition of works of art. Famous galleries are

the Louvre at Paris, the Uffizi and Pitti at Florence, the Vatican and Borghese at Rome, and the National at London. Other galleries containing renowned paintings or sculptures are at Versailles, Venice, Milan, Petrograd, Madrid, Dresden, Vienna, New York, etc. (5) A place of business or pleasure shaped like a gallery or in some way analogous to it; as a photograph gallery, a shooting gallery.

As a nautical term, gallery means a platform outside the body of the ship, at the stern or at the quarters. It was formerly common. In mining, a working drift or level. In fortification, any sunk or cut passageway that is covered both overhead and at the sides.

GALLEY, the ancient and mediæval ship of the Mediterranean, propelled primarily by oars. The Venetian galleys were about 160 feet long above, and 130 feet by the keel, 30 feet wide and 20 feet length of stern-post. They were furnished with three masts, and 30 banks of oars, each bank containing two oars, and every oar being managed by six or seven slaves, who were usually chained to it. In the fore part, after the invention of cannon, they had three small batteries of cannon, namely, two 36-pounders, two 24-pounders and two 2-pounders. They had also three 18-pounders on each quarter, and carried from 1,000 to 1,200 men.

The term galley, as applied to the ships of the ancient Greeks and Romans, refers especially to their warships, which were propelled chiefly by oars.

The Greek or Græco-Etruscan vases show many illustrations of biremes, that is, galleys with two banks, or longitudinal rows, of oars. The invention of this form of vessel was a very important advance in naval construction, for it permitted of a large increase in rowing-power, in proportion to the bulk and weight of the vessel. It was the trireme, however, which formed the chief warship of Greece during her prime. It had three banks of oars on each side. The seats for the rowers, which were removable, were placed between the sides of the vessel and a series of upright and inclined timbers supporting the main deck. The stem of the vessel was generally curved, and terminated in an ornamental figure-head, and the sternpost was also usually curved upward and finished off ornamentally. At the stern there was an elevated quarter-deck whence the helmsman and the trierarch or naval captain gave orders. The latter had full command of the ship; the former acted as navigating officer, having the oarsmen and sailors under his command. The trireme had regularly two masts a mainmast with one large sail, and a very small foremast.

The rowers formed much the largest portion of the crew, while an Attic trireme carried also 10 marines, 17 sailors, a sort of paymaster, two men in charge of the lines of towers, besides two boatswains, one with a flute, to give the time to the rowers. The total crew would thus be about 220. The total length of a trireme was about 120 feet, of which about 100 was devoted to the rowers; the breadth at the waterline was some 12 feet; and the draught about 6 feet. A speed of 8 or 9 knots was probably about the highest obtainable.

The Romans did not become important as a maritime nation till the period of their struggle

with Carthage. They built large numbers of ships, chiefly of higher rates than the trireme. But the triumph of the bireme vessels, known as Liburnian galleys, at Actium led the way for a reversion to lower-rated ships. Consult Parker, F. A., Fleets of the World: The Galley Period (New York 1876); Chatterton, E. K., 'Sailing Ships and their Story) (London 1900); and Ships and Ways of Other Days' (Philadelphia 1913); Holmes, G. C. V., Ancient and Modern Ships) (2 vols., London 1906).

GALLI, găl'i, the emasculated priests of Cybele, who was worshipped as symbolizing the procreative powers of nature. Cybele was the "Great Mother" and inspired the arts of agriculture. The chief seat of this cult in historic times was Pessinus in Galatia, but it never obtained public recognition in Greece, where the excesses and mendicity of its priests exposed it to contempt. It was introduced into Rome 204 B.C., at the bidding of the Sibylline oracle, and for the purpose of expelling Hannibal from Italy. The Galli were permitted to pass in a procession through the streets of the city, led by an Asiatic priest and priestess, but Roman citizens were forbidden to participate in this service. The cult gained an increasing favor and popularity and in the 2d century A.D. other rites were added, such as baptism in the blood of bulls and rams, by which the devotee was supposed to be cleansed from pollution and regenerated. This baptism was undergone by the The Emperor Julian, called the Apostate. worship of Cybele was checked by Constantine and abolished by Theodosius.

GALLIC ACID, C.H2(OH)3COOH, is an acid which exists in small quantity in gall-nuts, in valonia (the acorn-cup of Quercus agilops), in dividivi (the pod of Casalpinia coriaria), in sumach, and other vegetables. It is usually prepared from gall-nuts, which, in addition to gallic acid, contain a large proportion of tannin (tannic acid or gallo-tannic acid). When the gall-nuts are digested with water for some weeks fermentation takes place, and the tannic acid is gradually converted into gallic acid. The same result is obtained more quickly if sulphuric acid be present. To obtain pure gallic acid the gall-nuts are boiled with water, and the hot liquor separated. On cooling gallic acid crystallizes out, and is further purified by solution in hot water and treatment with animal charcoal. It forms delicate, silky, acicular crystals, nearly colorless and having a sourish taste. It is soluble in three parts of boiling water, but only in 100 of cold water, and on this account it can be readily purified by recrystallization. With solution of iron salts (ferric) it produces a blue-black color, and finally yields a black precipitate on exposure to the air. Hence it may be used in the production of ink, for which purpose it has some advantages over tannin or gall-nuts. When the crystals are strongly heated pyrogallic acid (CH3(OH)3) is produced and sublimes over. Gallic acid is a useful astringent. As it does not coagulate albumen it is readily absorbed into the blood, and in this way it is efficacious in Bright's disease. Where a decided local astringent effect is desired tannic acid is much more powerful. It has been used in excessive sweating and is useful for sweating feet and as a local spray and gargle in tonsilitis, pharyn

gitis and similar affections of the nose and throat.

GALLIC WAR, Cæsar's Commentaries on the. Cæsar had filled the consulship in the year 59 B.C. Shortly after the end of his year of office, he had set out (early in 58 B.C.) for the province of trans-Alpine Gaul, to which he had been appointed for a period of five years. The situation in this province was most serious. Various wild tribes were becoming restless and were threatening the fringe of Roman cities scattered along the Mediterranean in southern Gaul. Appreciating the menace to Roman interests and Roman prestige, Cæsar gathered troops to meet the immediate crisis. The Gallic tribes, suspicious of Cæsar's first success, soon began organized resistance to his evident purposes of ambition, and in the attempt to maintain their freedom and realize their national aspirations waged campaign after campaign against the Romans. Despite their gallant efforts they were finally crushed in the year 52 B.C., when with the surrender of Vercingetorix and the fall of Alesia, the last attempts at Gallic independence were proved futile.

Cæsar's Commentaries on the Gallic War give an account of the events of his contest with the Gallic tribes. This account is contained in seven books, each book being devoted to the campaigns of a year. The struggle lasted from 58 to 52 B.C. The work seems to have been published in the winter of 52 to 51 B.C. Book I deals with the unsuccessful attempt of the Helvetians to invade southern Gaul; also with the defeat of the Germans under Ariovistus, who had established a tyranny over the Sequani and Haedui in eastern Gaul and was now threatening Roman influence in this region. Book II is devoted to an account of the overthrow of the Belgian league. To forestall the establishment of Roman ascendancy in northern Gaul, the Belgian tribes had organized a strong confederacy. One of these tribes, the powerful and warlike Nervii, almost succeeded in inflicting a crushing defeat on Cæsar's troops in a fierce engagement on the Sambre. Book III embraces a description of the successful maritime war against the Veneti and their allies on the northwestern coast of Gaul, along with the account of scattered operations by Cæsar's lieutenants in other quarters. Book IV deals first with the campaign against the Germans. This was waged partly to the west, partly to the east, of the Rhine. To cross the river, Cæsar (in 10 days) constructed his famous bridge. He then penetrated far into the interior of the country. The remainder of Book IV describes Cæsar's first invasion of Britain in the autumn of 55 B.C. Book V begins with the events connected with the second invasion of Britain and gives an interesting description (chapters 12-14) of the island and its inhabitants. The concluding portion of the book is devoted to an account of the overthrow of the new league of Gallic states against the Romans. Book VI describes a second expedition into Germany. In this connection a somewhat lengthy account of German institutions and customs is given and a contrast drawn between the Germans and the Gauls (chapters 11-28). The year 52 B.C. was signalized by a general revolt of all the Gallic tribes against the Roman rule. The leader in this

The

movement was the able, courageous and patriotic king of the Arverni, Vercingetorix. struggle was futile. Alesia, Vercingetorix's stronghold, was captured, his forces crushed, and he himself taken as a prisoner to Rome. These operations are described in Book VII. An eighth book, detailing the Gallic operations of 51 B.C., has come down to us. It was written by Hirtius, one of Cæsar's lieutenants.

The importance of the Commentaries lies partly in the subject matter, partly in the authorship. They are the composition of a great personality, dealing not merely with great events, but events of world-historic import of which he himself was the directing genius. Cæsar's account in the main is authentic and trustworthy. By always speaking of himself in the third person, he aims to produce the impression of detachment and impartiality. Yet at times he suppresses the truth, and at times colors his narrative in his own favor. Specific literary charm, as ordinarily understood, is totally lacking. Cæsar's simplicity and directness have always appealed to his readers, but the composition of the work was evidently hasty. Much of it may have even been the unrevised draft of notes made at the time of the events described.

Translation: T. Rice Holmes (London 1905). A scholarly discussion of the contents of the work may be found in the same writer's Cæsar's Conquest of Gaul' (Oxford 1911).

ISM.

CHARLES E. BENNETT, Professor of Latin, Cornell University. GALLICAN CHURCH. See GALLICAN

In

GALLICAN CONFESSION, The, ог French Confession of Faith, was prepared by John Calvin and his pupil De Chandieu and approved by the Synod of Paris in 1559. 1561 it was delivered by Theodore Beza to Charles IX at Poissy. In 1571 it was formally adopted by the Synod of La Rochelle, and due to that fact is sometimes called the "Confession of Rochelle." It was also sanctioned by Henry IV. It consists of an address to the king and 40 articles. The text of the articles may be found in "The Creeds of Christendom by Philip Schaff (Vol. III, pp. 356-382, New York 1877). The arrangement is the same as in Calvin's Institutes and the Geneva Catechism of 1540. In 1848 an attempt was made to substitute a new confession but failed. In 1872, however, a second attempt proved successfuĺ but created a division in the Church.

GALLICANISM, the tendencies, principles, or action of those members of the Roman Catholic Church in France who, notably in 1682, sought to increase the power of the national church and to restrict in that country the authority of the Pope. By extension, the tendency to enlarge the prerogatives of any national Church in restriction of the authority of the Roman See. This term takes its derivation from the controversies between the French monarchy at various times and the Roman pontiffs in regard to ecclesiastical jurisdiction. It is a mistake to suppose that Gallicanism took its rise in France prior to the 13th century, or that the decrees of Louis IX, including the Pragmatic Sanction, were in any proper sense