He lectured with unparalleled success. Scholars from the most distant regions of Europe crowded about him. In 1597 he invented the sector.

One of the most important mathematical discoveries which he made at a period subsequent to this is that the spaces through which a body falls, in equal times, increase as the numbers 1, 3, 5, 7; that is, if a body falls 16 feet in the first second, it will fall 48 in the next second, 80 in the third, and so on. Whether the thermometer was his invention it is difficult to determine; perhaps he only improved it. By means of a telescope, constructed by himself, he made a series of the most important discoveries. He found that the moon, like the earth, has an uneven surface; and he taught his scholars to measure the height of its mountains by their shadow. A particular nebula he resolved into individual stars, and even conjectured that the whole Milky Way, with good instruments, might be resolved in the same manner. His most remarkable discovery was that of Jupiter's satellites, 7 Jan. 1610. He likewise observed Saturn's ring, though he had not a just idea with regard to it. He saw the sun's spots somewhat later, and inferred, from their regular advance from east to west, the rotation of the sun, and the inclination of its axis to the plane of the ecliptic.

Galileo's name, meantime, had grown so celebrated that Cosmo II, grand duke of Tuscany, appointed him grand-ducal mathematician and philosopher, and invited him to become first instructor in mathematics at Pisa. Here he gained a decisive victory for the Copernican system by the discovery of the varying phases of Mercury, Venus and Mars; as the motion of these planets about the sun, and their dependence on it for light, were thus established beyond the possibility of doubt. He wrote a work afterward on the floating and sinking of solid bodies in water, and in this, as well as in all his other writings, scattered the seeds of many new doctrines.

While thus employed in enlarging the field of natural philosophy, a tremendous storm was gathering about his own head. He had declared himself in favor of the Copernican system, in his work on the sun's spots, and was therefore denounced as a heretic by his enemies. In 1611 he visited Rome for the first time, where he was honorably received, and where a favorable report was made on his writings by the mathematicians of the Collegio Romano at the instance of Cardinal Bellarmin. On his return to Florence, however, he became more and more involved in controversy, which gradually took a theological turn, and in the course of which he declared the literal understanding of the utterances of Scripture with regard to physical phenomena to lead to absurdities. From Rome he received, in the name of the Cardinal Barberini (afterward Pope Urban VIII), the warning not to overstep the limits of mathematics and physics, but he paid no heed to the well-meant advice. The monks preached against him, and in 1616 he found himself again obliged to proceed to Rome, where he is said to have pledged himself to abstain for the future from promulgating his system either orally or otherwise. The genuineness of the document on the basis of which this is asserted, has, however, been questioned in modern times,

and the controversy regarding this matter is not yet finally settled.

In 1618 the appearance of three comets gave him an opportunity to communicate to his friends some general observations, on these bodies. His scholar, Mario Guiducci, wrote a work immediately after, in which he severely condemned the Jesuit Grassi. Supposing Galileo to be the author, Grassi attacked him. Galileo replied in his 'Saggiatore,' a masterpiece of eloquence, pronounced by Algarotti to be the finest controversial work Italy has ever produced, and, notwithstanding the errors contained in it, a work always worthy to be read.

About this time he completed his famous work, in which, without giving his own opinion, he introduces three persons in a dialogue (Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World'), of whom the first defends the Copernican system, the second the Ptolemaic, while the third appears as a blind and unreasoning supporter of the views of Aristotle. With this work, in which the greatest elegance and accuracy of style is united with the clearest and most concise statements, Galileo went to Rome in 1630, and succeeded in obtaining the privilege to print it. Having obtained the same permission in Florence, he published it there in 1632-Dialogo di Galileo Galilei, dove ne' Congressi di quattro Giornate si discorre de' due massimi Sistemi del Mondo, Tolemaico et Copernicano.' Scarcely had it appeared when it was attacked by the disciples of Aristotle, and most violently of all by Scipione Chiaramonti, teacher of philosophy at Pisa. A congregation of cardinals, monks and mathematicians examined his work, condemned it as highly dangerous, and summoned him before the tribunal of the Inquisition. The veteran philosopher was compelled to go to Rome, and in June 1633 was condemned to renounce, in presence of a great assembly, kneeling before them, with his hand upon the gospel, the great truths he had maintained. "Corde sincero et fide non ficta, abjuro maledico et detestor supradictos errores et hereses," was the formula which he was compelled to pronounce. His famous whisper, "But nevertheless it [the earth] does move," is a fiction. He was sentenced to the dungeons of the Inquisition for an indefinite time, and every week, for three years, was to repeat the seven penitential psalms of David. His 'Dialogo' was prohibited and his system condemned as contrary to the Bible. His judges were merciful enough to commute his sentence of imprisonment to banishment to the villa of the grand duke of Tuscany at Rome, then to the archiepiscopal palace at Sienna, and soon after he was allowed to return to Arcetri, not far from Florence.

He employed his last years here principally in the study of mechanics and projectiles. The results are found in two important works on the laws of motion, the foundation of the present system of physics and astronomy. At the same time he tried to make use of Jupiter's satellites for the calculation of longitudes; and though he brought nothing to perfection in this branch, he was the first who reflected systematically on such a method of fixing geographical longitude. He was at this time afflicted with a disease in his eyes, one of which was wholly blind, and the other almost useless, when, in

1637, he discovered the libration of the moon. Blindness, deafness, want of sleep and pain in his limbs united to embitter the last years of Galileo's life. He died in the year Newton was born, and his relics were ultimately deposited in the church of Santa Croce, at Florence, where a splendid monument was erected to him near that of Michelangelo.

Galileo was of diminutive size, but strong and healthy. His countenance was agreeable; his conversation lively. He loved music, drawing and poetry. He knew Ariosto by heart; and in one of his works, first printed in 1793, 'Considerazioni al Tasso,' the product of his leisure hours, he points out the superiority of Ariosto to Tasso, whom he criticizes very severely. His style is lively, natural and fluent. His collected works have been edited by Alberi (16 vols., Florence 1842-56). Consult Brewster, 'Martyrs of Science' (London 1841); Chasles, Galileo Galilei (Paris 1862); Epinois, H. de l', 'Les Pièces due procès de Galilée) (1877), and 'La question de Galilée' (1878); Fahie, J. J., 'Galileo: his Life and Work (London 1903); Favaro, A., Galileo Galilei (Florence 1882); Gebler, K. von, Galileo Galilei und die Römische Kurie) (1876); Wegg-Prosser, F. R., 'Galileo and his Judges' (Eng. trans., London 1889).

GALIMBERTI, gä-lēm-bār'tē, Luigi, Italian cardinal and diplomat: b. Rome 1838; d. 1896. He became professor of church history in the College of the Propaganda and of theology in the University of Rome, and was appointed by Pius IX canon of the Lateran in 1868. From Leo XIII he received appointment as canon of Saint Peter's, archbishop of Nicæa, and secretary to the Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs. He was papal arbiter in the award to Spain, as against Germany, of the Carolines, and in 1880 was sent as ambassador to Germany, where he was successful in adjusting the difficulties of the "Kulturkampf" through the abrogation by the Crown of the socalled "May Laws." In 1893 he was made a cardinal and prefect of the papal archives.

GALINÉE, gäl-e-nā, René de Brehant de, Sulpician missionary: b. Brittany; d. 1678. He came to Canada in 1668, and in 1669-70, in company with Dollier de Casson (q.v.), made a notable journey, in the course of which they explored Niagara, the north shore of Lake Erie and the east and north shores of Lake Huron, and took formal possession of the country in name of Louis XIV. On their return to Montreal Galinée made a map of their explorations the first map of the upper lakes made at first hand, and one which marked a notable advance in cartographical knowledge.

GALION, Ohio, a city in Crawford County, on the Erie and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis railroads, 80 miles southwest of Cleveland. Galion is an important railroad town, being a connecting point and division terminal. There are railroad shops and round-houses here, brick and tile works, carriage and wagon factories, wheel and gear works, iron foundries and lumber mills. The town was originally laid out in 1831, by settlers from western Pennsylvania, and was chartered as a city in 1878. The city owns and operates its electric light and water plants. The government is composed of a mayor, who holds

office for two years, and a common council, elected by popular vote. Pop. 7,214.

GALITZIN, gäl-let'sěn, or GOLITZIN, the name of a noble Russian family, whose members have been equally prominent in war and diplomacy from the 16th century downward. VASILI, surnamed the Great (b. 1643; d. 1714); was the councilor and favorite of Sophia, the sister of Peter the Great, and regent during his minority. His great aim was to bring Russia into contact with the west of Europe, and to encourage the arts and sciences in Russia. His design to marry Sophia and plant himself on the Russian throne miscarried. Sophia was placed by her brother in a convent and Vasili banished (1689) to Siberia and later to Archangel. ADELHEIDEN AMALIE, PRINCESS GALITZIN (1748-1806), daughter of the Prussian general, Count von Schmettau. She was noted for her literary culture, her sympathetic relations with scholars and poets, but, above all, for her ardent piety, which found in Catholicism its most congenial sphere. Having separated from her husband, Prince Dimitri Alexievitch, she took up her residence in Münster, where she gathered round her a circle of learned companions. PRINCE DYMITRI ALEXIEVITCH, diplomat (b. 1735; d. 1803). He was ambassador to the court of France in 1763, and to The Hague in 1773, and was the author of several works relating to geology.

GALL, Saint, Irish monk: b. Ireland about 550; d. Saint Gall, Switzerland, about 645. He accompanied Saint Columba to France about 585 and took part with him in all his missionary labors. Banished from France, they went together into the wilder regions of Switzerland, and near the Lake of Constance they founded the monastery which bore the name Saint Gall and gave name to the town and canton of Saint Gall. After a few years Columba retired to Italy, leaving his companion abbot of the new house. The monastery was burnt by Hungarians in the 10th century.

GALL, gäl, Franz Joseph, German phrenologist: b. Tiefenbronn, Baden, Germany, 9 March 1758; d. Montrouge, near Paris, 22 Aug. 1828. He studied medicine at Strassburg and Vienna, and settled in the latter city in 1785 as a physician. In 1796 he began to give courses of lectures on phrenology (q.v.) in Vienna; but these lectures were prohibited in 1802 by the Austrian government as being subversive of the accepted religion. With Spurzheim, who became his associate in 1804, he quitted Vienna in 1805, and began a lecturing tour through Germany, Holland, Sweden and Switzerland. He reached the height of his fame when in 1807 he settled as a physician in Paris. On 14 March 1808 he and Spurzheim presented to the Institute of France a memoir of their discoveries, on which a committee of the members of that body (including Pinel, Portal and Cuvier) drew up an unfavorable report. Thereupon Gall and Spurzheim published their memoir, 'Introduction to Physiology of the Brain'; this was followed by Researches on the Nervous System' (1809), and by Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System' (181019) with an atlas of 100 plates. In 1811, in answer to accusations of materialism and fatalism brought against his system, Gall published "Of the Innate Inclinations of the Soul and

Spirit.' He continued to practise medicine and pursue his researches at Montrouge, near Paris, till his death. See SPURZHEIM, KASPAR,

GALL. See BILE.

GALL, Abbey of Saint. A Benedictine abbey in the canton Saint Gall, Switzerland. It was founded in the 7th century and placed under the patronage of Saint Gall, or Gallus, an Irish missionary and a disciple of Saint Columbanus. Saint Gall died in 646 and a chapel was erected on the site of his cell by Charles Martel. Under his patronage and that of his son, Pepin, a community of monks grew up there and the monastery was dedicated to Saint Gall. Under Othmar, the first abbot, a school was founded which soon acquired a great influence. The early years of the abbey were marked by frequent conflicts with the bishops of Constance, who refused to recognize the exemptions and other privileges of the community, but in the time of Louis the Pious its rights were confirmed and its independence secured. In the 9th century the library was considerably enlarged and a catalogue, prepared at that time and still in existence, shows the possession of manuscripts on a wide range of subjects. In the 13th century the importance of the abbey as a centre of religion and learning waned. This may have been due in part to the fact that at this time the town became an independent principality over which the abbots ruled as territorial sovereigns. After the Reformation the town threw off the rule of the abbots. At this time many of the most valuable books and manuscripts were carried away. In 1530, under Abbot Diethelm, the library and schools were restored and later in the century a printing press was established there which eventually became one of the most important in Switzerland. In 1712 the abbey was raided by the Swiss who carried away many books and manuscripts to Zürich, Berne and other cities. By a curious irony of fortune the abbot was obliged at this time to place the abbey under the protection of the townspeople, who had once been the subjects of his predecessors. After this trouble a final attempt was made to restore the library and schools, but in 1798 the Swiss Directory suppressed the ecclesiastical principality and secularized the abbey. In 1846 Saint Gall was erected into a separate bishopric, with the abbey church as its cathedral. A portion of the monastery was assigned as the bishop's residence and the rest used for the offices of the civil government and the remains of the library.

THOMAS GAFFNEY TAAFFE. GALL-BLADDER, the reservoir for the bile, a pear-shaped membranous sac, about four inches long, one inch in breadth at its widest part and holds from an ounce to an ounce and a half, is lodged in a depression on the under surface of the right lobe of the liver. Its fundus or broad extremity is directed downward and forward and occasionally projects a little beyond the edge of the liver, almost touching the abdominal wall about three inches from the middle line of the body, its body and neck extend upward and backward. The bile is conveyed to the small intestine by biliary ducts or canals about the size of a quill except when distended. The cystic duct, the smallest,

and about an inch in length joins the neck of the gall bladder with the hepatic duct, about one inch and a half long, which issues from the liver and so is formed the common excretory duct of the liver and gall bladder, the largest of the biliary ducts and about three inches in length, which empties into the duodenum. Bile is not conveyed into the intestine until it is needed in the process of digestion, but as secreted in the liver passes into the gall-bladder through the hepatic and cystic ducts to be stored until needed.

Catarrhal cholangitis, acute or chronic, is an inflammation of the lining membrane of the ducts, causing swelling of them and obstruction to the flow of bile. Usually it is an extension of a gastritis or duodenitis, or may be due to the presence of gall stones, to stricture, to cancerous disease or pressure from enlarged or contracted liver, etc. Whenever there is an interference with the flow of bile from the liver there is usually jaundice more or less pronounced. Catarrhal jaundice is attended by few symptoms, no emaciation, some discoloration of skin, liver little larger than usual and tender to pressure usually runs a course of about six weeks. Marked jaundice coming on gradually and attended by severe pain-points to gall stones or something worse. Biliousness, sallow complexion, depression of spirits, digestive disturbance is probably more often due largely to a deficient flow of bile rather than to an excessive amount, and may end in gall stones.

Cholecystitis, inflammation of the gallbladder due to infection by microbes from the intestines may be a mild catarrh, or suppuration may occur leading to perforation and peritonitis. If a severe attack there is violent pain, great tenderness and a high temperature. If persistent, and especially if stones are believed to be present, an operation is necessary. Cholelithiasis, the tendency to the formation of gall stones, occurs mostly among persons engaged in sedentary occupations who take but little if any exercise in the open air and who eat too much nitrogenous and fatty food. The bile becomes too thick and is retained, and stagnant, infection occurs and gall-stones form chiefly from cholesterine, a normal constituent of the bile. The congestion of the biliary tracts may result from poisons taken into the body or manufactured within the body, from interference with the circulation of the liver, and from displacements of the liver.

Gall-stones, even in large numbers (100 or more) may be formed and held in the gallbladder for years without causing discomfort, but there is always the tendency to local inflammation of the gall-bladder or of one or more stones being forced into the cystic or common duct, damming back the bile, causing adhesions and intense pain. Getting rid of gall-stones by medicines is unsatisfactory. There is no known solvent. Operation for their removal in obstinate cases is necessary. Statistics show that only 1.4 per cent of operated cases die, under the care of experienced surgeons. The operation is not so much in reality to get rid of the stones as to get rid of the bacteria causing infection, and of inflammation, irritating fluids,

etc.

Hepatic or gall-stone, colic, is the name given

to the intense cramp that accompanies the passage of a gall-stone through the bile-ducts or an attempt at such a passage. There is a sudden excruciating pain in the right side at the free border of ribs or even over the whole abdomen; frequently the pain may shoot up to the right shoulder blade and arm. The patient rolls and tosses in agony with his face suffused with cold perspiration. Sometimes there is a chill followed by fever. The duration depends on the course of the stone; frequently relief is had in a few hours, only soreness remaining. Cholecystectomy -surgical removal of the gall-bladder, now-a-days quite frequently resorted to.

Cholecystotomy-surgical incision of the

gall-bladder.

Cholecystastomy-surgical creation of permanent opening into gall-bladder through the abdominal wall.

GALL-FLY, one of the several minute gallmaking insects, as the British ash-fly. See GALLS AND GALL-MAKERS.

GALL-GNATS, a gall-making gnat of the genus Cecidomyia. See GALLS AND GALL

MAKERS.

GALL-STONE. See CALCULUS.
GALLA. See NUT-GALLS.

GALLAIT, gä-lā, Louis, Belgian historical painter: b. Tournai, Belgium, 10 May 1810; d. Brussels, 20 Nov. 1887. He studied in Tournai, Antwerp and Paris, where he acquired a name by his portraits as well as his genre and historical paintings. Among his earlier pictures of note were Christ Restoring Sight to a Blind Man' purchased by subscription and presented to Tournai Cathedral; The Strolling Musicians'; 'The Beggars'; 'Montaigne Visiting Tasso in Prison); Abdication of Charles V. Among his subsequent pictures are Temptation of St. Anthony'; The Dead Bodies of Counts Egmont and Hoorn'; 'The Prisoner's Family'; The Last Moments of Count Egmont'; Alva Signing Death Warrants'; and lastly (1882), The Plague at Tournai, purchased for Brussels Museum at the price of $24,000. He painted several of his best historical works for the French government. He had a powerful influence on modern art not only in his native country but throughout Europe; it was especially felt in Germany. Consult Dujardin, L'Art flamand' (Brussels 1899); Henne, Louis Gallait' (in Annales de l'academic Belgique, Brussels 1890); Muther, 'Die belgische Malerei im 19ten Jahrhundert (Berlin 1904); Teichlin, 'Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschland' (Berlin 1853).

GALLAND, gä-lon, Antoine, French Orientalist and archæologist: b. Rollot, France, 4 April 1646; d. Paris, 17 Feb. 1715. Attached in 1670 to the French embassy at Constantinople, he three years later accompanied the ambassador to Syria and the Levant. In 1676, and again in 1679, he made other visits to the East. In 1701 he was made a member of the Académie des Inscriptions, and in 1709 professor of Arabic in the College de France. The greatest part of his writings relate to archæological subjects, especially to the numismatics of the East; but the work which has secured him the greatest reputation is his translation of the Arabian Nights Entertain

VOL. 12-16

ments (1704-17), the first translation of these stories made into any language of Christendom. Among his other writings are 'Remarkable Sayings, Witticisms and Maxims of the Orientals (1694), and 'The Indian Tales and Fables of Pilpay and Lokman' (1724). See ARABIAN NIGHTS, THE.

GALLARDO, gäl-lärʼdō, Aurelio Luis, Mexicah poet: b. León, Guanajuato, Mexico, 3 Nov. 1831; d. Napa, Cal., 27 Nov. 1869. He published three volumes of poems: 'Dreams and Visions' (Mexico 1856); Clouds and Stars' (Guadalajara 1865); and Legends and Romances (1868); also a collection of poems, 'Home Stories. He wrote many comedies. The drama, 'Maria Antonieta of Lorena' is regarded as his best work.

GALLAS, gäl'läz, a Hamitic people inhabiting Africa approximately between lat. 9° N. and 3° S. and long. 34° and 44° E. Their language is a descendant of the ancient Geez of Abyssinia. Though they bear a perceptible strain of Negro blood, they are the purest type of the Ethiopian branch of the Hamitic race. They are tall, with good, often European, features, strong, wellmade limbs, skin of a light chocolate brown, hair frizzled but not woolly. Though cruel in war they are frank and faithful to promises and obligations. They are distinguished for their energy, both physical and mental especially the southern tribes, which pursue pastoral vocations, notably the breeding of horses, asses, sheep, cattle and camels, and those which live by hunting, especially the elephant. These same tribes are mostly still heathens, though Mohammedanism is rapidly making way among them. The more northerly tribes who dwell about Harar profess a crass form of Christianity, derived from Abysinnia, and for the most part raise cotton, durra, sugar and coffee. The total Galla population, who call themselves Ilm 'Orma (Sons of Men, or Sons of the Brave), is estimated at upward of 3,000,000. Politically they are divided into a great number of separate tribes, which are frequently at war with one another. But their inveterate foes are the Somali, who have gradually driven back the Galla from the shores of the Red Sea and the extremities of the Somali peninsula regions which were occupied by them in the 16th century, just as on the other side the Abyssinians and Shoans have beaten them back. The country they now inhabit is a plateau northwest of the Indian Ocean, with a hilly, welltimbered surface. Consult Keane, A. H., in Stanford's Africa' (Vol. I, London 1907); Salivac, P. M. de, Les Galla) (Paris 1901); Smith, A. Donaldson, 'Through Unknown African Countries: First Expedition from Somaliland to Lake Lamu' (London 1897).

GALLATIN, Abraham Alfonse Albert, generally known as ALBERT GALLATIN, American statesman and diplomat, and one of the foremost public financiers of the United States: b. Geneva, Switzerland, 29 Jan. 1761; d. Astoria, N. Y., 12 Aug. 1849. In 1773, both his parents having died a few years previously, the boy was sent to a boarding-school and in August 1775 to the Academy of Geneva, from which he graduated in May 1779, the first in his class in mathematics, natural philosophy and Latin translation. In 1780, after refusing a commission as lieutenant-colonel of a regiment of mercenaries under the Landgrave of Hesse, he and a friend, Henri

Serre, secretly left Geneva for the United States and established themselves in business at Machias, Me., but in 1781 abandoned this unsuccessful enterprise, Gallatin going to Boston where he supported himself by teaching French. In July 1782 he received permission to teach French in Harvard College, in which occupation he remained for about a year. In July 1783 he left Boston and purchased several thousand acres of land on the south side of the Ohio between the Monongahela and Kanawha rivers, in March 1784 establishing himself in a country store in Fayette County, Pa. In May 1789, against the wish of her mother, he married Sophie Allègre, but in the following October she 'died.

Gallatin had early evinced an intense interest in the political affairs of his adopted country and, after the adoption of the Constitution by the Federal Convention, joined the Anti-Federalists (q.v.). In September 1788, after Pennsylvania had ratified the Constitution, Gallatin represented Fayette County at a conference at Harrisburg for the purpose of suggesting amendments. In 1789-90 he was a delegate to a convention called to revise the constitution of Pennsylvania, and in October 1790, as also in the two following years, was elected to represent Fayette County in the State legislature. In this body he was conspicuously active, being a member of 35 committees, preparing all their reports and drawing all their bills, his report prepared for the committee of ways and means of the session of 1790-91, laying the foundation of his reputation. He bitterly opposed the excise laws, acting as secretary of meetings and drafting resolutions which, if not criminal, at least reached the utmost limit of indiscretion and expressed sentiments which he himself later acknowledged to be "violent, intemperate, and reprehensible." On 28 Feb. 1793 the Pennsylvania legislature elected Gallatin a United States Senator and on 2 December he took his seat, but on 28 Feb. 1794 the Senate refused his admission to that body because he had not actually been a citizen for nine years as prescribed in the Constitution. On 11 Nov. 1793, prior to taking his seat in the Senate, he had married Hannah Nicholson, daughter of Commodore James Nicholson, and for a few months was engaged in cultivating his lands, but in 1794 again plunged into the vortex of public life in connection with the Whisky Insurrection (q.v.). In October 1794 he was elected both to the State legislature and to Congress; his election to the legislature was declared void on 9 Jan. 1795, but he was immediately re-elected and sat from 14 February to 12 March, when he was granted leave of absence. In December 1795 he took his seat in the House of Representatives, joining the Republican party, became a member of the finance committee, and immediately exhibited his grasp of national affairs and his unique financial talents. He steadfastly opposed the Jay treaty (q.v.) and the increase of the army and navy, earnestly advocated the protection of the frontier, favored direct taxes, criticized the operations of the Treasury Department, objected to the manner of handling relations with France, fought the passage of the Alien and Sedition laws (q.v.) and by 1801 had become a powerful influence in the councils of his party.

Gallatin's Sketch of the Finances of the

United States (1796) and his 'Views of the Public Debt, Receipts and Expenditures of the United States' (1800) gained for him great renown as an economist and statistician, and together with his known abilities as an administrator of public finances brought him in 1801 the appointment as Secretary of the Treasury, which office he held continuously until 1813. He persistently urged and to a considerable degree effected a rigid economy in governmental financial operations, improved the internal revenue and sinking fund systems, reduced the public debt, provided funds to carry on the war without disturbing the financial system of the country, and devised a comprehensive plan for internal improvements. (See UNITED STATES — FINANCES OF THE, 1789-1816). He also ably but unsuccessfully urged the renewal of the charter of the Bank of the United States. Always a free-trade advocate, in 1831 he was the leading spirit in a free-trade convention at Philadelphia, drafting a memorial on that subject for presentation to Congress. His views on finance and banking were eagerly sought, among his notable essays on these subjects being 'Considerations on the Currency and Banking System. of the United States) (1830) and 'Suggestions on the Banks and Currency of the United States (1841).

In 1813 Gallatin was sent to Saint Petersburg as one of the commissioners to urge Russian mediation between Great Britain and the United States, but as he had not resigned from the Treasury, the Senate in July 1813 withheld confirmation and in January 1814 he left Saint Petersburg. A few weeks later, however, he received a regular appointment as one of the peace commissioners to settle the War of 1812 and materially influenced the shaping of the Treaty of Ghent (q.v.). In 1815, with Adams and Clay, he also negotiated a commercial convention with Great Britain. On his return home he declined a nomination to Congress and a second appointment to the Treasury portfolio, preferring diplomatic life instead, and from 1816 to 1823 rendered inestimable service as Minister to France. He aided Richard Rush at London in negotiating a new commercial convention with Great Britain and signed the compromise convention of 20 Oct. 1818. In 1824, after his return to New York, the Crawford Republicans nominated him for Vice-President but in October he withdrew in favor of Clay. A year later he declined to represent the United States at the proposed Congress of American republics at Panama, but in the spring of 1826 accepted an appointment as Minister to Great Britain, prior to his return in 1827 negotiating several important conventions. With his return to New York Gallatin's diplomatic career terminated, but during the next two years he prepared a statement of facts regarding the northeastern boundary to be laid before the King of the Netherlands. In 1846 he rendered his last diplomatic service when he published a pamphlet entitled The Oregon Question.' He protested against the annexation of Texas and in 1847 published a pamphlet entitled 'Peace with Mexico.'

The last years of Gallatin's life were in a large measure devoted to scientific researches, since his position as president of the National Bank of New York, which he occupied for several years, allowed him ample time for study;