germs of various dreadful diseases. The subplot concerns the fortunes of Tanya and Semyon, who are to be married, and who agree that the only real life is life in the country, where they propose to live. The list of characters include doctors, princes and other nobles, cooks and other servants, all of whom are differentiated with Tolstoi's masterly skill. It is all capital comedy and capital satire, has often been presented on the European stage, in Russian, in French and in German. It was first translated into English (from the French) by George S. Schumm in 1891, and is also included in the works of Tolstoi as translated by Nathan Haskell Dole, by Louise and Aylmer Maude, by Leo Wiener and by Mrs. Constance Garnett. NATHAN HASKELL DOLE.

FRUMENTIUS, Saint, founder of the Abyssinian Church: b. about 300; d. about 360. He was a native of Phœnicia, and, according to Rufinus, when a young man set out for India with his brother Édesius and their uncle Meropius on a commercial voyage. The party fell into_the_hands of the Ethiopians on the shore of the Red Sea. All were put to death, with the exception of Frumentius and Edesius, who became slaves of the king. They were well treated, gained their freedom in time and rose to great influence in the land. After the death of the king, Frumentius became instructor to the young Prince Aizanes. He formed a Christian congregation with the help of visiting Christian merchants. Edesius returned to Tyre and became a presbyter. Frumentius went to Alexandria and was consecrated bishop of Axum in 328 by Athanasius, who in his 'Epistola ad Constantinum' mentions the consecration and gives some details of Frumentius' mission. Frumentius' day is celebrated on 27 October by the Latin, and on 18 December by the Abyssinian Church.

FRUNDSBERG, or FRONSPERG, Georg von, German soldier: b. Mindelheim, Swabia, 1473; d. 1528. In his youth he served in the campaign of the Hapsburgs against Switzerland and in Italy in the struggle between Cambria and Venice. In 1519 he became commander of the infantry of the Swabian League. He fought at Pavia in 1525. Through his services to Maximilian in organizing the pikemen he became known as "the Father of the German Landsknechte» (pikemen). Consult Barthold, 'Georg von Frundsberg (Hamburg 1833), and the life in Latin by Adam Reissner (Frankfort 1568; German trans. 1572).

FRY, SIR Edward, English jurist: b. Bristol, 4 Nov. 1827; d. Failand House, near Bristol, 19 Oct. 1918. He was educated at Bristol College and at University College, London. He became a barrister in 1854, and Queen's counsellor and bencher of Lincoln's Inn 1869. He presided over the Royal Commission on the Irish Land Acts 1897-98; acted as conciliator in the South Wales colliery dispute 1898. He was legal assessor to the International Commission on the North Sea incident 1904-05; arbitrator between the United States and Mexico in the Pious Funds case 1902, and between France and Germany on the Casa Blanca incident 1909, and in many other local and international cases. From 1900 to 1912 he was a member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration at The Hague, and in 1907 was the first British plenipotentiary

to The Hague Peace Conference. His published works include 'Essays on the Accordance of Christianity with the Nature of Man' (1857); The Doctrine of Election, an Essay' (1864); A Treatise on the Specific Performance of Contracts) (1858; 5th ed., 1911); 'British Mosses' (2d ed., 1908); James Hack Tuke (1899); The Mycetozoa) (2d ed., 1915); 'Studies by the Way' (1900); The Liverworts' (1911).

FRY, Elizabeth Gurney, English philanthropist and prison reformer: b. Norwich, England, 21 May 1780; d. Ramsgate, Kent, 12 Oct. 1845. Brought up a Quaker by her family she did not adapt her mode of life to that prescribed by the more rigid and orthodox of the sect, till 1798, being then induced to do so by the preaching of William Savery, an American Friend traveling in England on a religious mission. This change was consummated by her marriage in 1800 with Joseph Fry, himself a "plain Friend." In 1810 Mrs. Fry became an occasional preacher and thenceforward devoted herself to offices of the purest benevolence and piety. Owing to her unwearied exertions, important reforms were effected in the prison systems, not only of Great Britain, but also in those of France and Germany. Consult 'Memoirs by Thompson (1846); Corter (1853).

FRY, James Barnet, American military officer: b. Carrollton, Green County, Ill., 22 Feb. 1827; d. Newport, R. I., 11 July 1894. He was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1847, and after serving as assistant instructor at West Point, he was assigned to the 3d Artillery, then in Mexico, where he remained till the close of the war. In 1863 he was appointed provost marshal-general of the United States, with headquarters at Washington, D. C.; and in 1864 was promoted brigadier-general. He was brevetted major-general in the regular army, 13 March 1865, for "faithful, meritorious, and distinguished services," and after the war served in the divisions of the Pacific, the South, the Missouri and the Atlantic, till 1881, when he was retired. He was the author of "The History of Brevets'; 'The Army under Buell.'

FRY, William Henry, American composer and journalist: b. Philadelphia, August 1815; d. Santa Cruz, W. I., 21 Dec. 1864. He early showed a singular aptitude for music, and in 1835 produced four overtures which were performed by the Philharmonic Society of Philadelphia, who presented the composer with an honorary medal. He next wrote the operas of 'Aurelia' and the 'Bridal of Dunure. In 1845 he brought out his opera of 'Leonora,' an Italian version of which was performed in 1858 in New York. In 1846 Fry visited Europe as the correspondent of several American newspapers, and after his return in 1852 gave his attention to music, producing several symphonies of merit. In 1855 appeared his next work, a 'Stabat Mater, brought out at the New York Academy of Music. He subsequently became attached to the editorial staff of the New York Tribune, and attained much popularity as a public lec

turer.

FRYATT CASE. On 20 March 1915 Capt. Charles Fryatt, commanding a British vessel, was attacked by the German submarine, U-33, off the coast of Holland and called upon to

surrender. Instead, Fryatt turned his ship and attempted to ram the submarine, which escaped by quickly diving, Both Fryatt and his chief officer were each rewarded with a gold watch by the British Admiralty for bringing the vessel safely through. In the following year Fryatt was in command of the British steamer Brussels when he was captured by German torpedo boats on 27 July 1916. Taken to Antwerp, he was brought before a German court-martial at Ghent and charged with illegally as a civilian-attacking a submarine. Fryatt confessed that he had acted under government instructions. He was found guilty and summarily shot as a franc-tireur. The execution aroused intense indignation in England and was regarded as on a level with that of Nurse Cavell (q.v.). The ensuing controversy between the British and German governments was carried on through the medium of the American Ambassador, Mr. Gerard.

FRYE, Alexis Everett, American educator: b. North Haven, Me., 2 Nov. 1859. He was graduated at the Cook County Normal School, Chicago, 1885, and from Harvard Law School in 1890. In 1883-86 he was teacher of methods and practice at the Chicago Normal School and from 1886 to 1890 lectured on educational topics. He was admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1890 and in 1891-93 was superintendent of schools at San Bernardino, Cal. He was appointed superintendent of schools in Cuba by the Secretary of War in 1899. He organized the public-school system of the island in 18991901 and conducted the Cuban teachers' expedition, bringing 1,284 native teachers to the United States in 1900. He was captain in the Harvard University Battalion in the SpanishAmerican War. He has published 'Child and Nature (1888); 'Brooks and Brook Basins' (1891); Mind Charts-Psychology) (1891) and a number of school geographies.

FRYE, William Pierce, American lawyer, legislator and statesman: b. Lewiston, Me., 2 Sept. 1831; d. Lewiston, 8 Aug. 1911; son of Col. John M. and Alice M. Frye. He was graduated at Bowdoin College in 1850 and after studying law in the office of William Pitt Fessenden, he began practice at Rockland, and later at Lewiston. He was elected to the State legislature from the latter city in 1861, 1862 and 1867. In 1864 he was a presidential elector on the Lincoln ticket. After serving a term as mayor of Lewiston, he was elected attorney-general of the State, on the Republican ticket, holding the office from 1868 to 1870. He was elected to Congress from his home district in 1871, and was re-elected no less than five times.

In 1881 he resigned his seat in the House of Representatives to accept the nomination to the United States Senate, filling the vacancy caused by the resignation of James G. Blaine, who entered Garfield's Cabinet as Secretary of State. Senator Frye was re-elected to the Senate in 1889, 1895, 1901 and 1907; was elected president pro tem. of the Senate in 1896, and has twice acted as permanent presiding officer of that body after the death of Vice-President Hobart in 1899, and after the elevation of Vice-President Roosevelt to the Presidency in 1901. After the close of the Spanish-American War Senator Frye was a member of the Peace Commission in Paris. He was chairman of the Commerce Com

mittee in the Senate and has exerted a great influence on national legislation. He was looked upon as one of the great leaders of the Republican party, and had much to do with framing legislation on the tariff and as regards American shipping. During the exciting days of the Spanish-American War he acted as chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. Senator Frye was given the degree of LL.D. by Bowdoin College in 1889, and also by Bates College in 1881.

FRYER, John, American Orientalist: b. Hythe, Kent, England, 6 Aug. 1839. He was graduated at Highbury College, London, in 1860; (LL.D. Alfred University, N. Y.). He was principal of Saint Paul's College, Hongkong, 1861-63; and professor of English at Tung-Wen College, Peking, China, 1863-65; and head-master of the Anglo-Chinese School, Shanghai, China, 1865-67; head of department for translation into Chinese of foreign scientific books at Imperial Government Arsenal, Shanghai, 1867-96; general editor and other offices of Educational Association of China 1887 to 1896; founder and proprietor of Chinese Scientific Book Depot, Shanghai, 1874; Viceroy's Examiner at Imperial Naval College, Nanking, 189495; traveling secretary to Chinese Ambassador, Kwo-Sung-Tao, 1878. Editor of Chinese newspaper, Shanghai Sinpao, 1866-67. Honorary member Northern China Branch Royal Asiatic Society in 1867; Agassiz professor of Oriental languages and literature, 1895-1915; professor emeritus, 1915; president Oriental Institute of California since 1904. Founder of the Institution for the Chinese Blind, Shanghai, China, 1912; editor and proprietor of Chinese Scientific and Industrial Magazine, Shanghai, 187684: Third degree of Chinese brevet civil rank, 1872; First Rank of Third Degree, Imperial Order of the Double Dragon, 1878. He is author or translator of upwards of 100 books in the Chinese language published at Shanghai, as well as articles, essays, reports, etc., in English; and the first 'Educational Directory for China' (1896); various vocabularies of scientific terms in English and Chinese, etc.

FRYKEN, friken, a series of small lakes north of Lake Wenern, Sweden. They are connected by narrow channels and drain southward into Lake Wenern. They are famed for their scenic attractions.

FRYXELL, Anders, Swedish historian: b. Hesselskog, Dalsland, 7 Feb. 1795; d. Stockholm, 21 March 1881. He was educated at Upsala, took holy orders in 1820, became instructor at the Djurgårdskole, Stockholm, in 1819, and at the Maria-Skole in 1822. He was rector of the latter in 1828-36. In 1823 he began his great work 'Stories from Swedish History; the work occupied much of his time for 56 years and was issued in 46 volumes. His style is picturesque and his popularity among all classes is due to his faculty of awakening a national sense in his readers. He published a 'Swedish Grammar) in 1824, which long remained a standard. He was made pastor at Sunne in 1835 and was elected to the Swedish Academy in 1840. In 1847 he received permission to devote himself exclusively to historical research. His other works include Characteristics of Sweden between 1592 and 1600' (1830); 'Origins of the Inaccuracy with which

the History of Sweden in Catholic Times has been Treated' (1847); Contributions to the Literary History of Sweden' (1862); The Rôle of the Aristocracy in Swedish History (1850); Studies in Swedish History' (1843). In 1884 his daughter, Eva Fryxell, published from his manuscripts an autobiography, History of My History. It is now recognized that Fryxell's labors were rather of a popular than of a scientific order and threaten to become obsolete despite their great popularity.

In

FTELEY, Alphonse, American civil engineer: b. Paris, France, April 1837; d. Yonkers, N. Y., 6 Aug. 1903. He was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, Paris, and came to the United States in 1865. He was resident engineer of the waterworks bureau of Boston (1873-80); chief assistant city engineer of Boston (1880-84), and subsequently consulting engineer. He was also chief engineer of the New York Aqueduct Commission (1888-1900). the last-named capacity he planned the Croton dam in 1891, and the Jerome Park reservoir in 1894. At various times he acted as consulting engineer on municipal waterworks and extensions in Brooklyn, Newark, Hoboken and on the Passaic Sewerage District, the Hoosac tunnel and the rapid transit systems of Boston and New York. He was a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, its president in 1898 and a contributor to its 'Transactions.'

FU-HI, or FO-HI, Chinese legendary hero, whose reign began about 2852 B.C. He was the first of the Wu-Ti, or "Five Rulers," and is affectionately regarded as the founder of the Chinese nation. He is reputed to have brought the people from a barbarous state to a comparatively high degree of civilization. He was renowned as a law-giver, having instituted marriage and divided the people into 100 clans and forbidding intermarriage within the clan. Much of myth and legend surround his birth, his alleged discovery of writing, etc. He died in 2738 B.C. (See CHINA, History). Consult La Conperie, Western Origin of the Early Chinese Civilization' (London 1894); Hirth, Ancient History of China' (New York 1908); Mayers, Chinese Readers' Manual (Shanghai 1875).

FU-SHAN, foo-shän', FATSHAN or FACHAN, China, a manufacturing town in the province of Kwang-Tung, 16 miles southwest of Canton, on one of the branches of the delta of the Si-Kiang. It has manufactures of silk, iron and steel, etc., is a busy commercial centre and is called the Chinese "Birmingham," doing an extensive import trade in scrap iron from Europe. Pop. about 500,000.

FUA-FUSINATO, foo-ä foo-se-na'to, Erminia, Italian poet: b. Rovigo, 5 Oct. 1834; d. Rome, 27 Sept. 1876. She was married to the poet Arnaldo Fusinato (q.v.) in 1856. Her spirited appeals to national sentiment in 1848 brought her widely into notice. In 1852 was published her 'Verses and Flowers.' She wrote a series of 'Stornelli,' advocating Florence as the national capital instead of Rome. Her complete poetical works, Versi,' were published in 1879; her Literary Writings' in 1883.

FUAD PASHA, Turkish statesman: b. Constantinople, 1814; d. Nice, 1869. He was the son of the distinguished poet Kechéji-zadé Izzet Molla, was educated at Galata-Serai and was at first an army surgeon. In 1836 he forsook medicine and entered the civil service as an official of the foreign ministry. In 1840 he came to London as secretary of the embassy and later was employed on special missions in the principalities and to Petrograd. In 1851 he was sent to Egypt as special commissioner. Later in the same year he became Minister for Foreign Affairs, a post to which he was subsequently appointed four times and which he held at the time of his death. He was in command of the troops on the Greek frontier during the Crimean War and was distinguished for his bravery. He was Turkish delegate at the Paris conference of 1856; was on a mission to Syria in 1860; grand vizier in 1860-61 and later Minister of War. He accompanied the Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz to Europe and was presented with the freedom of the city of London. He was one of the original members of the Turkish Academy of Science and Belles-Lettres and published a Turkish grammar in 1852, which was held in great esteem by Turkish scholars. As Foreign Minister he rendered invaluable services to his government at more than one critical period.

FUCA, Juan de, hoo-än' da fooʻkä (originally APOSTOLOS VALERIANOS), Greek navigator: b. Cephalonia; d. Zante 1602. He was for many years in the Spanish naval service. In 1592, when he discovered the sea-passage separating Vancouver Island from Washington and connecting the Pacific Ocean with the Gulf of Georgia and with Admiralty Inlet and Puget Sound, he thought he had chanced upon a connection between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. This strait has been called after his name. In 1596 he told an Englishman, Michael Lok, that he had made this discovery and the story found its way to 'Purchas, His Pilgrimes' (1625) and led to renewed efforts in search of a passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. For a criticism of Juan de Fuca's claims consult Bancroft, 'History of the Northwest Coast' (Vol. I, 1884).

FUCA, Strait of. See JUAN DE FUCA, STRAIT OF.

FUCHOW. See FOOCHOW.

FUCHS, fooks, Ernst, German ophthalmologist: b. Vienna, 1851. He was educated in Vienna, was professor at the University of Liége in 1881-86 and in the latter year became professor of ophthalmology at the University of Vienna. He has written several important works, including 'Das Sarcom des Uvealtractus' (1882); Die Ursachen und die Verhütung der Blindheit' (1885); Lehrbuch der Augenheilkunde) (11th ed., 1907; Eng. trans. by Alexander Duane entitled "Text-Book of Opthalmology,' 4th ed., 1911).

FUCHS, Immanuel Lazarus, German mathematician: b. Moschin, Posen, 1833; d. 1902. He was appointed professor extraordinary at Berlin in 1866 and became full professor of mathematics at Greifswald in 1869; removed to Göttingen in 1874, to Heidelberg the year following and to Berlin in 1884. He wrote considerable on the theory of func

tions and on linear differential equations. In 1891 he was made editor of the Journal für die reine und angewandte Mathematik. Consult 'Acta mathematica' (Stockholm).

FUCHS, or FUCHSIUS, Leonhard, German botanist: b. Membdingen, Bavaria, 17 Jan. 1501; d. Tübingen, 10 May 1566. He studied the classics under Reuchlin at Ingolstadt and was graduated doctor of medicine in 1524. He afterward turned his attention to botany, of which science he must be looked upon as one of the fathers. In his 'De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes (1542), he gave a clever description of domestic plants, alphabetically arranged, and laid the foundation of a permanent bontanical nomenclature. The fuchsia (q.v.) was named after him.

FUCHSIA, fu'shi-a or fook'si-a, a genus of plants, the type of the tribe Fuchsiea, family Onagraceae, named after the botanist, Leonhard Fuchs. The genus contains more than 70 known species, chiefly natives of Mexico, Peru and Chile. Some have been found in New Zealand. The plants are shrubby or arborescent, sometimes climbing; the flowers are pendent, large and fine, with brilliant and delicate coloring-purple, rose and white; the calyx is fourcleft, the corolla four-petaled, the fruit fourcelled. The leaves are opposite and verticillate. The flowers are both axillary and terminal, usually one flower springing from the axil, more rarely in racemes at the top of the branches. Fuchsias are much cultivated in conservatories, and are favorite house-plants throughout the United States. They are propagated with great facility from cuttings.

FUCHSINE, fook'sin, an aniline dye prepared by the action of arsenic acid, nitrobenzene or other oxidizing agents upon a mixture of aniline and its homologue toluidine, which yields a mass with a bronze or coppery lustre, called rosaniline. This dissolved in water, precipitated with common salt and the precipitate washed and crystallized from water, forms fuchsine, which in commerce receives various fancy names, as magenta, aniline or new red, roseine, rubine, etc. It is a derivative of triphenylmethane and has the formula

FUEGIAN. See ONA; YAHGAN.

FUEGO (fwä'gō) ISLAND. See FoGa FUEL, Comparative Heating Values of. The effective and economical utilization of the inherent heat energy of fuel in the production of light and power is perhaps the most important industrial question of the times. It is one that plays such a necessary part of modern life and the cost of the fuel used oftentimes is so great a factor in the conduct of an industrial enterprise on an economical basis, that constant efforts are being directed to improve the present methods of fuel utilization and approach more nearly the possibilities of theoretical efficiency.

Kinds of Fuel.- Nature furnishes a great variety of fuel in three general forms - the solid, such as wood and coal; the liquid, such as petroleum; and the gaseous, such as natural gas. The solid forms of fuel are the most common; the liquid contain the largest proportion of heat energy; and the gaseous are the most convenient for use and economical of labor. The fact that any kind of gaseous fuel is the most convenient and, in a great many cases, the most effective for use, has been demonstrated principally through the utilization of natural gas; but as the supply of natural gas is gradually failing and the cost of oil-firing is much higher, the tendency of the times is to perfect methods for the conversion of solid and liquid fuel into gaseous form. These conditions render the methods of firing employed very important.

naces.

Methods of Firing. In general, the economical and effective utilization of a fuel depends upon the completeness of the combustion thereof. In the combustion of solid facts by ordinary grate or "direct firing" methods the greater part of the heat liberated is lost in the form of gases which are not combustible at the temperatures attained in grate-fired furOn the other hand, when solid fuel is first converted into gas and the gas thus obtained utilized by "gas firing" methods, the results accomplished more than compensate the 15 or 20 per cent loss of heat energy sustained by the process of conversion. As generally applied, gas firing results in more complete combustion and the attainment of higher combustion temperature and thereby make possible metallurgical operations which are impracticable with direct firing. There is also less loss of heat through the waste products of combustion and greater efficiency in transfer of heat. Furthermore, by suitable methods, the heat from the hot waste gases can be recovered and returned to the combustion chamber in preheated air, so that the gas and air supply, and therefore the combustion of the fuel, are placed under easy and complete control.

In practice, the theoretical amount of air necessary for complete combustion is always exceeded. Direct firing requires at least twice the theoretical amount to even approximate complete combustion, especially in the use of soft coals. With the progress of combustion, the fuel bed becomes more compact, so that with a given draught the amount of air penetrating into the bed decreases with the increase of the depth and compactness of the fuel. Under these conditions, a fresh charge of coal requires a greater amount of air to consume

its volatile components and demands it at a time when its passage is most retarded and the combustion rendered more incomplete by the reduction of temperature accompanying volatilization. As the final result is an irregular air demand, the grates have to be arranged to admit the greater excess of air at all times, otherwise large heat losses will occur from the escape of unconsumed gases.

On the other hand, in gas firing, the air supply is always under control and therefore can be made to approximate closely the theoretical amount, thus reducing the bulk of the products of combustion and ensuring more complete combustion. The greater amount of heat then liberated is concentrated in smaller volume, and raises the temperature of combustion, so that the oxygen of the air combines more readily with the combustible constituents of the gas. Furthermore, the smaller the excess of air the less the dilution of the gaseous mixture by nitrogen and other inert gases which retard combustion.

The products of combustion being of a higher temperature transmit their heat more readily, and being smaller in quantity carry off less heat by way of the chimney. By suitable arrangements, these products may be intercepted and forced to impart a large amount of their heat to the air supply going to the combustion chamber, thus returning a certain amount of heat to the system, which represents a saving in fuel equivalent to the amount of heat so returned.

Therefore, in considering any fuel the primary question does not relate to the calorific value of the fuel so much as to what percentage of the heat energy represented by its calorific value is actually available for conversion into mechanical energy according to the manner of its utilization.

The latest experience shows, that in the case of a modern steam plant, burning coal by direct firing, the economy lies behind the stop valve, rather than in reducing the consumption of steam.

According to the best authorities, the mechanical arrangements and conditions most favorable for the most economical utilization of solid fuel are as follows: the height of the chimney should not be less than 120 feet, nor more than 180 feet, giving a natural draught ranging from 0.50 to 0.83 inches of water, with an average temperature of 300° F. For Lancashire boilers (full size) the chimney area should equal six square feet per boiler up to a total of four boilers and five square feet per boiler for every additional boiler. The area of the chimney entrance should be 10 per cent in excess of this amount and the flue should enter the chimney with a rising slope of not less than 45 degrees. The area through the economizer should be 20 per cent greater than the flue area and the economizer walls should be at least 14 inches thick and exceptionally well built and the combined area of the boiler side flues should not be less than twice that of the main flue.

As the price of fuel is influenced to a great extent by the convenience with which it can be burned, the general tendency is to use a higher priced fuel even though it may have a lower heating value than a cheaper grade. This

tendency can be readily overcome and a large reduction made in the fuel bill by the use of high-class mechanical stokers which will burn coal almost impossible to fire by hand.

General Descriptions of Fuel.

For various reasons coal is the most important of all fuels and in many localities constitutes the only one available; but in some places wood, oil and gas are abundant and take the place of coal. In certain industrial and manufacturing plants, their waste products, such as straw, tanbark, sawdust and bagasse are used as fuel more economically than coal, owing to their availability. For general purposes, however, coal is the chief fuel and the available heating value of all other kinds of fuel are invariably expressed in terms of that of coal.

SOLID FUELS.

Varieties of Coal.-The five most important varieties of coal are anthracite, dry bituminous, caking bituminous, cannel and lignite.

Anthracite coal is found principally in the Alleghany Mountains and in the Rocky Mountain region in Colorado. It is a hard, lustrous variety and breaks up easily at a high temperature. It consists of 93 to 95 per cent carbon and 2 to 4 per cent hydrogen and burns with very little flame and smoke, unless containing an excess of moisture and gives an intense heat. There is a variety known as semi-anthracite which contains 90 to 93 per cent carbon and 4 to 5 per cent hydrogen, but it is not as hard as true anthracite and burns with a short flame. Owing to its great brittleness, a large part of anthracite gets broken into small pieces; therefore, in order to obtain the best results it should be fired on grates having small air spaces. The various commercial names and sizes of anthacite coal used in industrial furnaces are as follows:

"Chestnut coal passes over a round hole seven-eighths of an inch in diameter and falls through a hole one and one-half inches in diameter. "Pea" coal passes over a hole ninesixteenths of an inch in diameter and falls through a hole seven-eighths of an inch in diameter. "Number One Buckwheat" passes over a hole three-eighths of an inch in diameter and falls through a hole nine-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. "Number Two Buckwheat" or "Rice" passes over a hole three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter and falls through a hole three-eighths of an inch in diameter. "Number Three Buckwheat" or "Barley" passes over a hole three-thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter and falls through a hole three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. "Dust" includes all that falls through a hole three-thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter. The size of coal used has a considerable influence on the amount of heat produced, owing to its effect on the draft. With a poor draft, fine coal is consumed too slowly to be effective. Coal is most efficiently used in separate sizes, which afford regularity of draft, whereas mixed sizes have the effect of choking the fire.

Bituminous coal contains less carbon and more hydrogen than is found in anthracite. The dry variety is found in Maryland and Virginia and the caking variety chiefly in the Mississippi Valley. Dry bituminous coal contains 84 to 89 per cent carbon and 5 to 6 per cent