native city under Eckersberg, in Dresden and in Paris under Coutoure. He spent much time in Rome and Paris and exhibited regularly at the salons. After 1877 he was professor at the Copenhagen Academy. His best known pictures are King Harold Blaatand) (1840); Cupid and the Water-Sprite' (1845; now in Leipzig); The Wood-God and his Family,' and decorations in several public buildings of Denmark and in the Court of Appeals at Flensburg, Prussia. He executed etchings for Fabicius, History of Denmark'; for Apuleius, 'Cupid and Psyche'; for 'Die Götter des Nordens' and other works. He is perhaps best known for his illustrations of old Danish ballads and of children's books.

FROLLO, Roman knight and governor of France, who was killed by King Arthur, according to an Arthurian legend of the 15th century.

FROME, England, town on the Frome, in Somersetshire, about 12 miles southeast of Bath. There are manufactures of woolen goods, broadcloth, silks, hats, dyestuffs, ales, cutlery and ironware. It is also an important central market for agricultural produce. wood Forest, a part of which is still in existence, was in the neighborhood. The town contains an art school and a museum and owns its water system. Pop. 10,901.

Sel

FROMENTIN, fro-mon-tặng Eugène, French painter: b. La Rochelle, 24 Oct. 1820;. d. Saint Maurice, near La Rochelle, 27 Aug. 1876. He began life as a law student, but early turned his attention to landscape painting, working in the studio of Louis Sabat. In 1842 he traveled in Algeria, and it was after this journey that under the guidance of Marilhat, the painter of Oriental scenes, he resolved to work a new vein in the same department by painting the North African deserts. In 1847 he exhibited at the Salon for the first time and visited Algeria twice (1848-52). The fruits of these wanderings were not only numerous pictures, but also two literary works descriptive of his travels. These were A Summer in the Sahara (1856), and A Year in the Sahel' (1858), works distinguished by powerful and richly colored style and poetic imagination. As a painter his aim was to depict the light and atmosphere of the desert with truth and delicacy, yet imparting to it his own subjective interpretation, and he showed a marked taste for studies in gray and violet. The masterly analysis of ancient painting, which appears in his Masters of a Former Day) (1876), embodies the results of his travels in Holland and Belgium (1875), where he made a careful study of the Dutch and Flemish masters. His paintings are remarkable for their brightness and harmony of color, excellent draftsmanship and execution. The most noted are 'A La Rochelle Farm) (1847); The Gazelle Hunt' (1857); 'A Street in El-Aghouat' (1859); 'An Arab Bivouac'; 'The Falcon Hunt' (1863); and An Arab Camp, his last picture, in the Louvre. He is represented in the Walters collection, Baltimore, and in the Vanderbilt collection and the Metropolitan Museum, New York. Consult Blanchon, Biography and Letters of Eugène Fromentin' (1909); Claretie, "Eugène Fromentin" (in 'Peintres et sculpteurs contem

porains, Paris 1882); Gouse, 'Eugène Fromentin, peintre et écrivain (ib. 1881); Huthor, 'Modern Painting) (New York 1907); Jouin, "Fromentin" (in Maitres contemporains,' Paris 1887).

FROMMANN, Georg Karl, German philologist: b. Coburg 1814; d. 1887. He was editor of Die deutsche Mundarten and was also librarian of the Germanic Museum. In 1865 he was one of a Committee of Eleven theologians, which undertook the revision of Luther's translation of the New Testament. Later, at the request of the Protestant conference, the Old Testament was included and the revised edition of the whole Bible was published in 1892. Consult memoir by Vogt (Nuremberg 1888).

FROMMEL, fro'měl, Emil, German theologian and author: b. Karlsruhe, 5 Jan. 1828; d. 1896. He was educated at Halle, Erlangen and Heidelberg. He held several pastorates successively, was army chaplain during the struggle with France in 1870-71 and after the war became court preacher at Berlin and pastor of the garrison there. He wrote several volumes of theology including 'Die zehn Gebote Gottes in Predigten (6th ed., 1898); 'In drei Stufen,' an anthology, (8th ed., 1890); 'Festflammen' (6th ed., 1896); Das Gebet des Herrn in Predigten (4th ed., 1893). "Tales For the People (1873-86), and similar collections of humorous and realistic compositions, will more surely form his memorials in the future.

FROMMEL, Karl Ludwig, German painter and engraver: b. Birkenfeld, Oldenburg, 1789; d. 1863. He studied at Karlsruhe where his masters were F. J. Becker and Haldenwang. He afterward visited France and Italy. He returned to Germany in 1817, and became professor at Karlsruhe, where he founded the Society of Art and Industry. He visited London in 1824 with the object of studying the technique of steel engraving, and later he established a studio in this branch at Karlsruhe. He was director of the picture gallery from 1830 to 1858 and his able administration placed it in a flourishing condition. His most notable works (engravings) are Arricia near Rome'; 'View of Tivoli'; Mount Etna'; and 'Mount Vesuvius. Many of his landscapes are preserved in the Karlsruhe gallery.

FROMMEL-LINDEMANN, Karl August. See LINDEMANN-FROMMEL.

FROND, in botany, a term applied to a plant in which stem and leaves are not differentiated. It has been generally applied to fern leaves by older botanists who thought that ferns represented a combination of stem and leaf. The duckweed is the best illustration of the frond type.

FRONDE, frônd, the name of a political faction which played a conspicuous part in French history during the minority of Louis XIV, and gave rise to the insurrectionary movement known historically as the War of the Fronde. The members of this party obtained the contemptuous name of Frondeurs (slingers), being compared to boys throwing stones from slings, owing to the pertinacious lampoon warfare which they waged against the powerful minister of that day, Cardinal Mazarin, and the Queen Regent, Anne of Austria. Mazarin, as a

foreigner and a parvenu, was detested by the French people-both patrician and proletarian

and especially had incurred the opposition of the Parliament of Paris to his measures. In 1648 Mazarin ventured on the bold step of arresting two of the most popular members of the latter body, and on the next day, 27 August (la journée des barricades) the Parisians rose in arms, dispersed some of the royal troops sent out against them, and barricaded the approaches to the Louvre, compelling the court party to retire to Saint Germain, thus leaving Paris in the hands of the insurgents. Upon the Prince de Condé advancing to besiege the capital, the parliament called the citizens to arms, when the Prince de Conti, the Duc de Beaufort ("Le Roi des Halles," and son of Henry IV), and numerous others of the great nobles of the kingdom came forward to head the insurrection. The famous Cardinal de Retz and the Duchesses de Longueville and de Montbazon also joined the popular cause. The Prince de Condé, too, changed sides and went over to the malcontents, with whom the court party shortly afterward patched up a treaty of peace of but brief duration. Fresh contentions arose, and Mazarin caused the arrest of Condé and Conti. This step excited a revolt in the provinces, and Marshal Turenne hastened to the rescue of the Frondeur princes, but was routed in the battle of Rethel (1650). The cardinal, however, enjoyed but a temporary supremacy; the parliament again agitated against him, and procured his banishment from France, leaving the Prince de Condé master of the situation. Subsequently, the contest degenerated into a war of intrigue and is regarded as one of the most useless conflicts ever waged. The court finally agreeing to dismiss Mazarin a general amnesty was proclaimed. Condé attempted to continue the struggle, but was proscribed, and entered the service of Spain, while Mazarin, after a time, returned to Paris, and again obtained the reins of government. It was not until 1653 that the last signs of revolt in the provinces were suppressed. The defeat of the movement helped to render the monarchy absolute. sult Barante, 'Le parlement de Paris et vie de M. Mole (Paris 1859); Gordon, The Fronde) (Oxford 1905); id., Lettres du Cardinal Mazarin' (Paris 1878-1906); Pardoe, 'Louis XIV and the Court of France, etc.) (London 1888); id., 'Memoirs of Cardinal de Retz' (ib. 1896); Perkins, France under Richelieu and Mazarin' (New York 1888).

VON.

FRONSPERG.

Con

See FRUNDSBERG, GEORG

FRONSPERGER, Leonhard, German military writer: b. Ulm 1520; d. 1575. He applied himself to the study of military science at an early age. His most famous work is the 'Kriegsbuch kaiserlicher Kriegsgerechte und Ordnungen vom Geschütz) (1573; new ed., by F. W. A. Böhm 1819), in which is displayed a remarkable knowledge of military science in all its ramifications. It stamped Fronsperger at once as the foremost German military writer of his century.

FRONT ROYAL, Engagement at. Front Royal, Va., is 12 miles east of Strasburg, and is the key to Luray Valley. On 23 May 1862 it was held by Colonel Kenly with nine companies of the 1st Maryland infantry, two com

panies of the 29th Pennsylvania, a company of the 28th New York, and a section of Knap's battery, under command of Lieutenant Atwell, in all about 900 men. Soon after noon of the 23d "Stonewall Jackson, moving down the Luray Valley to cut off Banks' retreat from Strasburg to Winchester, pushed through the town, driving in Kenly's pickets and advanceguard. Kenly made a stand on a ridge about a mile north of the town, where he was joined by about 100 men of the 5th New York cavalry, but was soon flanked and pushed across both branches of the Shenandoah, and failed to burn the bridges behind him. When across the river he drew up on its north bank and, with artillery and musketry, resisted for some time all efforts to cross; but Jackson's cavalry forded the stream, both above and below the bridges, thus flanking his position, and Kenly fell back toward the cross-road leading to Middletown, closely followed by Confederate cavalry. He had gone four miles when his cavalry rearguard was stampeded, and his infantry fiercely attacked, the resistance continuing until his force was cut to pieces and captured, with Atwell's two guns and the entire supply-train. Nearly all the New York cavalry escaped. The Union loss was 18 killed, 56 wounded and 718 captured; the Confederate loss was 11 killed and 15 wounded. Jackson pushed on after Banks, leaving Colonel Conner with the 12th Georgia and a battery at Front Royal. On the 30th the 1st Rhode Island cavalry, the advance of McDowell's corps, dashed into the town, surprised Conner, and captured 156 officers and men and one gun, the loss in the cavalry being 8 killed and 5 wounded.

FRONTAL BONE. See SKULL.

FRONTAL MORAINE. See MORAINE. FRONTAURA, frōn-tă-oo'rä, Vásquez Carlos, Spanish dramatist and journalist: b. Madrid, Spain, 4 Sept. 1835. He was one of the most voluminous writers of Spain in the 19th century and contributed to practically all the well-known newspapers and magazines of Madrid. He founded the Cascabel, which he used in behalf of the restoration to the throne of Spain of Alfonso XII, in which he was finally successful. He became president of the Council of Ministers, and for six years he was governor of various provinces, editor-in-chief of the Gaceta de Madrid and finally head of the section of public charities in the Department of the Interior, a position he held for He wrote many dramas and many years. musical comedies, several of which were very popular and are still played wherever Spanish is spoken. Two of his zarzuelas, Un caballero particular and 'En las astas del toro have been presented almost countless numbers of times in Spain and the Spanish-American countries. Among his numerous comedies, 'Pepe Carranza' and 'Las tres rosas,' have also been extraordinarily popular. Among his other works which have been widely read are 'Las tiendas,' 'Los sermones de Doña Paquita,' "Tipos madrileños,' 'La Galería de Matrimonios, Miedo al hombre,' 'Brigida.' In all, his novels, stories and humorous works number little short of 100. He also published 'Los Niños, a magazine collection of stories for children (14 vols.), the best of its kind in Spain. His writings dealing with national cus

toms contributed to La Ilustración Española y Americana show a real insight into the life of certain classes of Spain. He has also written several books for children which became very popular. Many of his works of all kinds have been translated into Portuguese, French, German and Italian.

FRONTENAC, Louis de Buade, loo-ẽ dė boo-äd frônt'näk. COMTE DE, French colonial officer: b. France, 1620; d. Quebec, 28 Nov. 1698. He entered the army in 1635 and at an early age became brigadier. In 1672 he was appointed governor of the French possessions in North America. Of an imperious nature, the new governor was nevertheless most energetic and aimed at an orderly, well-directed administration of the colony, which he believed would herald an era of great prosperity. To this end he inaugurated a city administration in Quebec and convened the clergy, nobles and commons. Frontenac's reforms met with little favor from his sovereign and he was shorn of much of his power. Quarrels with the Jesuits, the new intendant and the governor of Montreal divided the colony, and the news spreading to France Frontenac was recalled in 1682. In spite of his violent temper he gained the confidence of the settlers and the respect of the Indians, and in 1689, when to the horror of constant attacks from the Iroquois the misery of a war with England was added, he was again sent out by the king, as the only man who could rouse the colonists to hope and action. During the next nine years he loosed his savage allies on the defenseless villages of New England, repulsed a British attack on Quebec and so broke the power of the Iroquois that they were never again a terror to the colony. Consult Le Sueur, Count Frontenac (Toronto 1906); Parkman, 'Frontenac and New France Under Louis XIV) (1877); Winsor, 'Cartier to Frontenac (1894).

FRONTENAC, Kans., city of Crawford County, on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, the Kansas City Southern and other railroads, 100 miles south of Kansas City. It is the centre of an important coal mining region. The waterworks are the property of the municipality. Pop. 3,396.

FRONTERA, Mexico, a seaport in the State of Tabasco on the Gulf of Campeachy, 225 miles southeast of Vera Cruz. It has a good harbor and its annual exports exceed $2,000,000, consisting chiefly of coffee, cocoa, hides, rubber and dyewoods. Its imports consist chiefly of iron, steel, machinery and cotton goods and are valued at about $1,000,000 annually. It is the port of Juan Bautista, the capital of the State of Tabasco. A United States consul is stationed here. Pop. 5,760.

FRONTIER, Military, the outermost limits of the lines of national defense of a country. By agreement between countries with a common land frontier the military frontier is placed at some distance back of the actual dividing line between them. The term was formerly applied to a narrow strip along the Turkish frontier in Hungary, which had a special military government. Modern land frontiers are usually defended by a chain of forts.

FRONTINUS, fron-ti'nus, Sextus Julius, Roman writer of the latter part of the 1st century after Christ. He was thrice consul and

commanded with reputation in Britain under Vespasian. He was appointed by Nerva to superintend the aqueducts of Rome and left an extant work on the subject, 'De Aquis Urbis Romæ, as well as one dealing with the art of war, Stratagemata.' His death took place about the year 105 A.D. The 'De Aquis Urbis Romæ is an important work in that it contains complete descriptions of the aqueducts and water supply of the city. Consult Herschel, 'Two Books on the Water Supply of the City of Rome, which contains an edition of 'De Aquis, with translations, notes and commentary (Boston 1899; 2d ed., London 1913) and 'Stratagemata,' edited by Gunderman (Leipzig 1888).

FRONTO, Marcus Cornelius, Roman orator and rhetorician: b. Cirta, a Roman colony in Numidia, about 100 A.D.; d. about 175. He went to Rome during the reign of Hadrian, soon acquired great fame as a speaker and teacher of rhetoric and was in consequence selected as tutor to M. Annius Verus and L. Commodus, afterward emperors under the names of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. He became a member of the senate and was a consul in 143 A.D. Till 1814 the only extant writings of Fronto were a worthless tract, 'De Differentiis Vocabulorum and some fragments; but in that year Angelo Mai recovered many of Fronto's letters from a palimpsest in the Ambrosian library at Milan. These were part of the orator's correspondence with Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Verus and other distinguished friends and were published under Mai's editorship in 1815. In 1823 Mai published a new edition of the letters, containing many others which he had discovered in the Vatican library. While not of great importance the letters show that the Emperor Marcus Aurelius was highly esteemed by his contemporaries as by the moderns. Consult edition of the letters by Naber (Leipzig 1867); Brock, 'Studies in Fronto and his Age' (Cambridge 1911); Ellis, (The Correspondence of Fronto and Marcus Aurelius' (Oxford 1904); Teuffel, 'Geschichte der römischen Litteratur (6th ed., Leipzig 1913).

FROSCHDORF. See FROH SDORF.

as

FROSINONE, fro'si-no'nē, Italy (the ancient FRUSINO), city in the province of Rome, 53 miles southeast of Rome, on the Cosa River. Wine is produced in the neighborhood and marketed here. The ruins of the ancient Volscian town form its principal attraction. Pop. (commune) 11,646.

FROSSARD, Charles Auguste, French military officer: b. Versailles, 1807; d. ChâteauVillain, Haute Marne, 25 Aug. 1875. He was educated at the military school of Metz and gained distinction in the engineers' corps. He was present at the siege of Rome in 1849, was commander of the Second Corps of Engineers in the Crimea, and was made a brigadier-general in 1855. He served as chief of the engineering department in Italy in 1859 and in 1867 received the appointment of chief of the military household and governor to the prince imperial. He commanded the Second Corps of the Army of the Rhine in the Franco-Prussian War, driving the Prussians from Saarbrücken on 2 Aug. 1870. On 6 Aug. 1870 he was defeated at Forbach. He gave the order for the

charge of the Imperial Guard cavalry in an effort to stem the retreat at Metz on 16 August, and was involved with his corps in the surrender of Bazaine's army, remaining a prisoner until the close of the war. General Frossard published a 'Rapport sur les operations du 2o corps de l'armée du Rhin dans la campagne de 1870 (Paris 1872).

FROST, Arthur Burdett, American illustrator and author: b. Philadelphia, 19 Jan. 1851. He studied under Thomas Eakins in the Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, and coming to New York secured employment on the Graphic, and later entered the studio of Harper and Brothers, where his associates were Abbey, Reinhart and Alexander. In 1877 he went to England, and in 1900 he exhibited at the Paris Exposition. His early work was full of interest and attracted much attention and his later work showed the spirit of the true artist. His illustrations of 'Out of the Hurly-Burly' (1872), first attracted general attention. Good examples of his style are his illustrations of Stockton, Rudder Grange' (1879); Thanet, 'Stories of a Western Town' (1893); and Bunner, 'Story of a New York House' (1887). He has published 'Stuff and Nonsense' (1888); 'Bull Calf and Other Tales' (1892); Sports and Games in the Open' (1899) 'Golfers' Alphabet'; 'Book of Drawings' (1905); 'Carlo' (1913).

FROST, Edwin Brant, American astronomer: b. Brattleboro, Vt., 14 July 1866. He was graduated at Dartmouth in 1886 and afterward studied physics and astronomy at Princeton, Strassburg and at the Royal Astrophysical Observatory at Potsdam, Germany. In 1887-90, he was instructor in physics and astronomy, 189295, assistant professor and director of the observatory, 1895-98, professor of astronomy, and from 1898 to 1902 non-resident instructor at Dartmouth College. In 1898 he was appointed professor of astrophysics and in 1905 director at the Yerkes Observatory of the University of Chicago. From 1896 to 1902 he was assistant editor and after 1902, editor of the Astrophysical Journal. He has made an especial study of stellar velocities, stellar spectroscopy, sun spots and solar thermal radiation. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the Roval Astronomical Society, the Societá degli Spettroscopisti Italiani and of many other learned bodies. He translated, revised and enlarged J. Scheiner's Treatise on Astronomical Spectroscopy) (1894), and has made many contributions to astronomical and other periodicals.

FROST, George Henry, American publisher: b. Ontario, Canada, 9 July 1838. He was educated at McGill University, Montreal, where he was graduated civil engineer in 1860. He was a land surveyor and railway engineer in Chicago before establishing himself in New York in 1878. In 1874 he established the Engineering News and published it until August 1911, when it was sold. He is president of the CourierNews Publishing Company of Plainfield, N. J., and is member of many engineering societies.

FROST, John, American educator and writer: b. Kennebunk, Me., 1800; d. 1859. He was educated at Bowdoin and at Harvard, being graduated at the latter in 1822. He taught in Boston and from 1828 to 1838 conducted a girls'

school in Philadelphia. He was later connected with the Central High School until 1845. He compiled many school books and biographical and historical works, including his very popular 'Pictorial History of the United States) (2 vols., 1844); 'Pictorial History of the World'; 'Lives of American Generals'; 'American Naval Biography,' etc.

FROST, William Edward, English painter: b. Wandsworth, near London, September 1810; d. 4 June 1877. About 1825 he was sent to a drawing school in Bloomsbury where he studied for several years. He also studied in the British Museum and in 1829 was admitted as a student in the Royal Academy schools: He maintained himself all those years by portraitpainting, executing over 300 portraits. In 1839 he was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Academy for his 'Prometheus Bound.' In 1843 he was awarded a third-class prize for his cartoon 'Una alarmed by Fauns and Satyrs.) His best-known works are 'Christ crowned with Thorns' (1843); Nymphs dancing' (1844, now in the Dublin Museum); 'Sabrina' (1845); 'Diana and Actæon) (1846); Nymph disarming Cupid' (1847); 'Una and the WoodNymphs (1847); Chastity) (1854); 'Il Penseroso (1855); The Graces and Loves' (1863); Hylas and the Nymphs) (1867). In 1846 he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and to full membership in 1871. Frost was deficient in power of design and while many of his works have grace and charm they are entirely without mastery. Many of his pictures were frequently engraved.

FROST, William Goodell, American educator: b. Le Roy, N. Y., 2 July 1854. He was graduated at Oberlin College in 1876, and afterward studied at the universities of Wooster, Harvard and Göttingen, Germany. From 1877 to 1879 he was instructor in Greek, and from 1879 to 1892 professor of Greek at Oberlin, being chosen president of Berea College in the latter year. He has done much in the promotion of higher education in Kentucky and in adapting educational methods to conditions in the Southern mountains. He published 'Greek Primer) (1887); Inductive Studies in Oratory) (1890), and contributions to magazines.

FROST, the moisture in the atmosphere crystallized or congealed by the cold, upon the earth's surface, or upon various objects and surfaces situated or existing upon it, as grasses, shrubs, trees, window panes, etc. The various phenomena of hoar frost, window frost, etc., grouped under this head, occur over a large portion of the land surface of the earth. In the United States, hoar frosts often occur during the spring and autumn months, over the whole northern portion of the country, and more rarely also in the Southern States, sometimes causing much damage by freezing and injuring the young corn sprouts and early fruits and vegetables. Frosts occur only during calm, cold nights when the temperature falls below 32° F. In the United States the meteorological conditions usually preceding the formation of frosts are northerly winds, accompanied by high barometer, and especially the coincidence of these conditions with the near approach, or passing, of a storm from the west or southwest. The formation of hoar frost depends in some degree upon surface topography and local causes, oc