the roots of our words-a part of logic, and essential to science. For is it not clear, that without precision in terms, and specific words for distinct things, however minute the distinctions, it is vain to hope to teach science plainly and accurately? Mr. Clyde treats Greek less as a dead language to be crammed or learned, than as a living tongue to be spoken; and he aptly uses NeoHellenic, or the spoken language of Modern Greece, as an auxiliary in his work. But it is full time to let Mr. Clyde say his say in his own expressive style : “In one respect," he says, "I have derived exceedingly little assistance from any quarter, viz., in the illustration of Greek idioms by modern instances. These, however, lie on the surface, patent to every observer; and they have been admitted into the present work-to what extent may be judged from the enumeration under the word 'Parallels' in Index I., because in actual teaching I have found them to be not less useful than interesting to the learner. The saying, 'That is Greek to me,' used of what is hopelessly unintelligible, often exercises so depressing an influence on the mind of the English student, that he does not even try to enter into the spirit of the Greek idiom when different from his own; at best he tries to remember its dead form. Now this abject renunciation of the highest endeavour is fatal to success; but I have always found it yield to the charm of a modern parallel. If such can be found in our own language, so much the better; if not, then the less removed from our own by time and place, the more effectual; for place, as well as time, is an element of strangeness, and a contemporary illustration from Paris begets more courage, and lets in more light than a contemporary illustration from Athens. Even when the learner is ignorant of the language referred to, the mere enunciation of the fact, that living men in a neighbouring country use an idiom coincident with the Greek, reconciles the mind to its strangeness, and removes the prejudice which, by stopping sympathy, prevents understanding. Another important object will be gained if, by these parallels, it appear that the study of the modern languages, instead of being, as many presume, antagonistic, is auxiliary to that of the ancient." "An uneducated foreigner, who by residence in England has acquired the faculty of expressing himself intelligibly in English, is nearer the heart of the English language, however distant from the penetralia of its literature, than the foreign scholar, who by reading has mastered the literature of England, but to whom, nevertheless, the expression of a single thought in English, except in the way of quotation, would be a laborious process, instead of a spontaneous act. This, however, is precisely the sort of phenomenon presented by our students of Greek; for although, on leaving the University, they are acquainted with the grammar and with certain authors,those, namely, which they have been required to get up; and although, as is often the case, they may be able to pass an examination on those with more éclat than even the contemporaries of the Greek authors themselves could have done, who spoke the language of the originals, but had not made of them a special study, yet, from having written Greek little, and never spoken it at all, they have no power over the language itself." Similarly Arnold wished English was a dead language that he might analyze Shakespear as he did Thucydides. The mistake here was in being at all deterred from doing so, because Shakespear is in a living language. It was nowise necessary that it should be dead for the purposes of analogical lessons. Mr. Clyde has shown that the colloquial method of learning a language is of use, but we confess we think that he somewhat overstates the advantage. We attach infinitely more importance to the accurate and scholarly use he makes of analysis. First, he divides Syntax, not into concord and governments, as if they were discrepant things, but makes government a form of concord : 66 Thus, in ἀπέχομαι οἴνου— I abstain from wine;' ἀπέχομαι is said to govern ovov in the genitive in reality, however, ȧréxoua is attended by the genitive, because of the congruity subsisting between the force of the genitive case-ending (which denotes the relation from) and the meaning of arέxoμaι (I keep myself from). Sometimes the underlying congruity cannot be so distinctly traced as in the above instance, but it must ever be presumed to exist; and not till it has been traced is the principle of a construction discovered. The syntax of a language being thus dependent on the inherent powers of words and of their grammatical forms, it is proposed to review these before investigating the laws of syntax themselves, which will be treated of separately, as they relate to words, and as they relate to sentences. The whole work, therefore, is divided into three parts, viz. : Part I. The Materials of Syntax. Part II. The Syntax of Words. Part III. The Syntax of Sentences.' He thus deals with analysis, and traces the forms of cases to ideas of place: "The case endings denote relations of the entity expressed by the substantive. Neither the vocative nor the nominative denotes any relation, and they are therefore not properly cases. The relations of place, as being the simplest and most obvious, were probably the first observed; and to the principal of these the three Greek cases, in most of their applications, correspond; the genitive denoting from what place,' the accusative to what place,' and the dative at what place.' Accordingly, these cases are capable of expressing the relations of place without the aid of prepositions. Thus, the genitive and accusative may accompany any verb of motion, to indicate, the former whence, and the latter whither, the motion proceeds; and the dative may accompany any verb whatever to indicate where the operation goes on. That such is the primary force of the Greek case-endings clearly appears from the meaning of the prepositions which are construed with each case exclusively. Thus, Ek and άó bring out the from relation of the genitive, siç the to relation of the accusative, and iv the at relation of the dative; and it is important to remark that in prose, where greater precision is required than in poetry, the local whence is generally accompanied by a preposition, the local whither always, and the local where almost always. The finest illustration of the primary local force of the Greek cases is furnished by the triple construction of rapà, the radical meaning of which is beside: thus παρὰ τοῦ βασιλέως— from beside the king;' παρὰ τὸν βασιλέα— to beside the king;' aρà r ßaoiλεî—' at beside the king.' He illustrates peculiar idioms and the peculiar use we make sometimes of prepositions in our own language very happily :— "We say 'independent of,' but 'dependent on,' an irregularity which cannot be admitted into French so long as the simple verb pendre, to hang,' exists to preserve the etymological meaning of dépendre. The irregularity in English is an example of the law by which the loss of etymology, giving scope for the operation of new analogies, leads to changes of construction. The analogy of the sense often prevails, even where the etymology has not been lost, but only enfeebled. Thus, έπixɛipέw— 'I put the hand to,' properly governs the dative; but the graphic outstretching of the hand to a thing which suggested the indirect regime, was at length forgotten, and replaced by the abstract idea of undertake, in which sense it is sometimes found with the accusative in later writers." The admirable effect and facility of the author's analogical illustrations, from living languages, of Greek idioms, throwing light on both, will appear from this, among many other examples: speaking of the Greek dative of general reference (T TOUT), for instance, he says: - "The only English idiom which approaches the Greek, is the use of 'for you,' in the sense of you being judge,' or 'I warrant you,'-which the Germans express, like the Greeks, by the simple dative, as 'Das war ihnen ein Spass,'- That was fun for you;' 'Da gab es euch ein Spektakel,'-'There was a row for you.' -Similarly he likens the Greek and German definite article, with its threefold sense, in each language. The Greek article converts the infinitive into a noun, translated by the English gerund, as rò apapтáver, sinning, exactly as il peccare, Italian. This Syntax will live. Guide to Astronomical Science. By Robert James Mann, F.R.A.S. Pp. 460. London: Jerrold and Sons. A book containing all the latest information, right or wrong, which has been put forth on this ill-used science during the last ten years. Broad axioms are printed in large type, numbered, followed by small type explanations and comments. When it is stated that Mr. Mann upholds the ridiculously incongruous and impossible theory of tides which the old books put forth, it will not be expected that he throws any new light on the topics which now divide men of science. The rotation question of the Moon's motion seems to have perplexed him. He tries hard to support the old theory, and is driven to this direct misstatement of a physical fact,-namely, that every point in a rotating body, and in the Moon, "revolves round all other points in it." None in the inner half, on the contrary, ever revolves round any in the outer. The blunders in this book are far too great to make it safe as a book for learners. The absurdity of supposing that, because a cable tied to the Sun and Moon would wind itself round the Moon, therefore the Moon must rotate round her own axis, is a proof how little logic is brought to bear on this subject. No one denies that the Moon turns completely round in thirty days. There are three distinct motions by which a body revolving round another may do this; and in each of them the simple act of orbital revolution alone will wind a string round it, tied either outside or inside its orbit, as the case may be. This, therefore, determines nothing. Mr. Mann contradicts himself about the sidereal day. He is happiest on optical subjects. The arrangement of the matter is also commendable. By Advanced Text-Book of Geology, Descriptive and Industrial. David Page, F.G.S. Pp. 320. Edinburgh and London: Blackwood, 1856. We have before had occasion to praise Mr. Page's admirable mode of handling his subject. He has clothed geology in most attractive colours, and has greatly facilitated its popular comprehension. LITTLE BOOKS. The Science of Arithmetic. By James Cornwell and Joshua Fitch, M.A. Second Edition. Pp. 372. (London: Simpkin and Marshall, 1856.) A new edition of a very able work. The science and principles of arithmetic are admirably elucidated. The rules are stated with force and precision, and the examples are well selected.The English Bible. Part II. Pp. 63. (London: Blackader, 1856.) This is the continuation of a work which has both its merits and demerits. Some of the mar ginal notes are very good, and it is nicely printed.- -Simple Catechism of the Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Kingdoms. By Charlotte O'Brien. Pp. 70. (London: Relfe, Brothers.) This is a nicely written and useful little book, in questions and answers, giving an account of the different classes and subdivisions of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms.- -Practical Arithmetic for Junior Classes. By Henry G. C. Smith. Pp. 64. (London: Simpkin and Marshall. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.) This book, throughout the whole, does not deserve the title of "Practical Arithmetic," for, to become practical to "junior classes," it should be written in such a style as to be easily understood by them; e. g. in page 7, the table of the comparative view of the systems of numeration is decidedly above the comprehension of most of the members of ordinary junior classes. The Roman notation is also very intricate. We consider that arithmetic cannot be made too simple at the first commencement.The Geographical Word Expositor. By Edwin Adams, Master of All Saints School, Sudbury. (London: Longman and Co., 1856.) The etymology of places' names is correctly given in this clever little work as a means of enlarging our knowledge and aiding our recollection of them. SERIALS RECEIVED. Frazer's Magazine [an excellent Number]; The Scottish Educational Journal; The Educational Record; The Scholastic Journal; The Choral Wreath [very good]; The Educator; Examination Papers, 17 to 32. Entelligence. ROYAL POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION. Dr. BOOTH, F.R.S., Treasurer of the Society of Arts, presided at a meeting on Monday evening, October 7, at the Polytechnic, to inaugurate a series of evening classes in union with the Society of Arts. The attendance was numerous, there being from 1,500 to 2,000 persons present. The CHAIRMAN said he had much pleasure in giving his humble co-operation to the good work they had in hand, and in tendering them the assistance of the Society of Arts. He was glad to see the cause of mental improvement taken up by the people, because the real work could only be done by the public themselves. There was no use in waiting to see what the State would do. The Government desired to promote national education, and would assist them if they could, but what hope was there of anything being done while public opinion remained so unsettled? Did they not all know that the average age at which boys were being removed from school was diminishing from year to year; that it had gradually fallen from fourteen down to nine, and even in some cases to eight years? While, in fact, the State was adding at one end, the public were cutting off at the other. He (Dr. Booth) believed that the law of supply and demand would hold in this case as well as any other. If parents found their sons could not get on in life without education, why, they would endeavour to procure education for them. If young men were made to feel that industry, diligence, and consequent attainments were passports to employment, they would soon see the class-rooms, not only of this institution, but of every similar one in the country, filled. But how did a young man now prepare himself to obtain employment? By pestering the members of the borough, if he lived in one, or by running after any railway director or municipal official he can get hold of-nor was he much to be blamed for this. So long as the qualifications of candidates were the last things to be considered in filling up appointments, they could not expect that qualifications would be much improved. It was a great mistake to imagine that red tape was only to be seen in government offices; they would find nepotism and partiality elsewhere just as well. In short, the matter came to this: if the great employers of labour desired the people of this country to be better instructed, they had only to insist on a higher standard of attainments than they did at present. The Rev. Mr. BUTTERWORTH OWEN further explained the nature of the arrangements between the classes now to be formed with the examinations at the Society of Arts, by means of which a central academy of sciences will be established. The attempt deserved every success, and it was clear that no one at the head of it could hope to reap any money-advantage from it, for the charge for lessons was so low that the payments, even with success, would barely pay the expenses of the management, and therefore the greatest credit was due to Mr. Pepper for the liberal manner in which he had taken up the subject. He thought that authorities of all ranks ought to support such efforts in antagonism to idleness, inebriety, and ignorance. The reverend gentleman concluded by reading the following list of classes:-Monday: Arithmetic and Algebra, from 7 to half-past 8 o'clock p.m.; Dr. White, F.C.P., Member of the Council and Examiner in the Royal College of Preceptors; textbooks, Colenso's Arithmetic and Algebra. Chemistry, from 20 minutes to 9 to halfpast 9 o'clock p.m.; J. C. Buckmaster, Esq., of the Department of Science and Art, and J. H. Pepper, Esq., F. C. S., A. Inst. C.E., &c. ; text-book, Wilson's Chemistry, by Chambers.-Tuesday: Geometry and Mensuration, from 7 to half-past 8 o'clock p.m.; Geo. J. Tear, Esq., C.M.D., of Training College, Winchester; text-books, Tate's Mensuration and Pott's Euclid. Geography, from 20 minutes to 9 to half-past 9 o'clock p.m.; George A. Chapman, Esq., C.M., of St. Mark's College, Chelsea; text-book, W. Hughes's Geography.—Wednesday: History and Literature, from 7 to 8 o'clock p.m.; the Rev. C. Boutell, M.A., Oxon. French, from a quarter-past 8 to half-past 9 o'clock p.m.; Mons. G. Roublot, Bachelier ès Lettres; text-books, Smith's French and English Pocket Dictionary, De Fiva's French Grammar, Montesquieu's Grandeur et Décadence des Romains, and Voltaire, La Henriade.Thursday: Mechanics and Elements of Mechanism, from 7 to half-past 8 o'clock p.m.; John Bridge, Esq., M.A.; text-book, Lardner's Handbook of Mechanics. German, from 20 minutes to 9 to half-past 9 o'clock p.m.; M. Heidenheim, Esq., Ph.D.; text-book, Ahn's Exercise and Grammar.-Friday: Bookkeeping, from 7 to 8 o'clock p.m.; Alex. Macpherson, Esq., Public Accountant; text-book, Chambers's Elements of Bookkeeping. Mr. BUCKMASTER moved a vote of thanks to Mr. Butterworth Owen. UNITED ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOLMASTERS. THE usual Monthly Meeting of the United Association of Schoolmasters took place in St. Martin's Hall, Long Acre, on the 27th September, when Mr. Mimpriss delivered a Lecture on his System of Graduated Simultaneous Religious Instruction. Owing to the extreme wetness of the weather, there was only a small attendance. Mr. Mimpriss began with the Gospel History, and proceeded to point out the unsatisfactory manner in which it is usually taught in our Day and Sunday Schools, it being a rare thing to find a scholar able to answer the question, Which of the four Evangelists begins the History of our Lord? He considered it was important that children should be taught the Chronology and Geography of our Lord's Life and Ministry. It might be asked, he said, of what use was it to teach these things to children? He contended it was of use, as from the Chronology and the Geography of the events of our Lord's life most important doctrines might be drawn, proving that Christ was indeed the Son of God. Mr. Mimpriss entered at some length into the subject, and explained that in the system he advocated all the children of a school were learning the same lesson at the same time, graduated, however, according to the capacity of the child, there being five grades in the system. Teaching the alphabet was discarded; the lessons were from the New Testament. At the conclusion of the lesson the children were examined by the teacher or superintendent: this was found to produce beneficial results. The Harmony of the Gospels was next dwelt upon; Mr. Mimpriss explained here that the highest or bible class should be taught on his system. The thanks of the meeting were given to Mr. Mimpriss for his lecture. The vote of thanks was duly acknowledged by the lecturer, who then withdrew, having to return to Folkestone the same evening. |