dently executed by Greek artists, and probably about the same time as the Æginetan statues. The monument consists of a quadrangular tower of limestone on a base, and was surrounded on four sides by marble friezes at the height of 20 feet from the ground. On these friezes, which are now in the British Museum, there are sculptures representing various mythological subjects; and, from the ends of the narrower sides containing four beautiful Harpies carrying off maidens, the building is frequently called the Harpy Monument. The general character of these sculptures is an antique simplicity of style, united with grace and elegance of execution.

§ 10. Painting is not mentioned as an imitative art in the earliest records of Grecian literature. Homer does not speak of any kind of painting, although he frequently describes garments inwoven with figures. The fine arts in all countries appear to have been indebted to religion for their development; and since painting was not connected in early times with the worship of the gods, it long remained behind the sister arts of architecture and sculpture. For a considerable period all painting consisted in coloring statues and architectural monuments, of which we find traces in the ruins of the temples already described. The first improvements in painting were made in the schools of Corinth and Sicyon; and the most ancient specimens of the art which have come down to us are found on the

oldest Corinthian vases, which may be assigned to the beginning of the sixth century B.C. About the same time painting began to be cultivated in Asia Minor, along with architecture and sculpture. The paintings of the town of Phocæa are mentioned on the capture of that city by Harpagus in B.C. 544; and a few years afterwards (B.c. 508) Mandrocles, who constructed for Darius the bridge of boats across the Bosporus, had a picture painted representing the passage of the army and the king himself seated on a throne reviewing the troops as they passed. The only great painter, however, of this period, whose name has been preserved, is Cimon of Cleonæ, whose date is uncertain, but who probably must not be placed later than the time of Pisistratus and his sons (B.c. 560-510). He introduced great improvements into the art, and thus prepared the way for the perfection in which it appears at the beginning of the following period. His works probably held the same place in the history of painting which the Eginetan marbles occupy in the history of sculpture, forming a transition from the archaic stiffness of the old school to the ideal beauty of the paintings of Polygnotus of Thasos.

Cyrus, from a bas-relief at Pasargadæ.

BOOK III.

THE PERSIAN WARS.

B.C. 500-478.

CHAPTER XV.

THE RISE AND GROWTH OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE.

§ 1. Introduction. § 2. The Assyrian Empire. § 3. The Median Empire. §4. The Babylonian Empire. § 5. The Lydian Monarchy, and its influence upon the Asiatic Greeks. § 6. Conquest of the Asiatic Greeks by Croesus, king of Lydia. § 7. Foundation of the Persian Empire by Cyrus, and overthrow of the Median Empire by the latter. § 8. Conquest of the Lydian Monarchy by Cyrus. § 9. Conquest of the Asiatic Greeks by Harpagus, the general of Cyrus. Death of Cyrus. § 10. Reigns of Cambyses and of the false Smerdis. § 11. History of Polycrates, despot of Samos. § 12. Accession of Darius, son of Hystaspes.

His organization of the Persian Empire. § 13. Invasion of Scythia by Darius. § 14. Subjection of Thrace and Macedonia to the Persian Empire.

§ 1. THE period upon which we are now entering is the most brilliant in the history of Greece. The subject has hitherto been confined to the history of separate and isolated cities, which were but little affected by each other's prosperity or adversity. But the Persian invasion produced an important change in the relations of the Greek cities. A common danger drew them closer together and compelled them to act in concert. Thus Grecian history obtains a degree of unity, and consequently of interest. The rise and progress of the Persian empire, which produced such important results upon the Grecian states, therefore claim our attention; but in order to understand the subject aright, it is necessary to go a little further back, and to glance at the history of those monarchies which were overthrown by the Persians.

§ 2. From the first dawn of history to the present day the East has been the seat of vast and mighty empires. Of these the earliest and the most extensive was founded by the Assyrian kings, who resided at the city of Nineveh on the Tigris. At the time of its greatest prosperity this empire appears to have extended over the south of Asia, from the Indus on the east to the Mediterranean sea on the west. Of its history we have hardly any particulars; but its greatness is attested by the unanimous voice of sacred and profane writers; and the wonderful discoveries which have been made within the last few years in the earthen mounds which entomb the ancient Nineveh afford unerring testimony of the progress which the Assyrians had made in architecture, sculpture, and the arts of civilized life. At the beginning of the eighth century before the Christian era the power of this vast empire was broken by the revolt of the Medes and Babylonians, who had hitherto been its subjects. The city of Nineveh still continued to exist as the seat of an independent kingdom, but the greater part of its dominions was divided between the Medes and Babylonians.

§ 3. The Medes belonged to that branch of the Indo-Germanic family inhabiting the vast space of country known by the general name of Iran or Aria, which extends south of the Caspian and the Oxus, from the Indus on the east to Mount Zagros on the west-a range of mountains running parallel to the Tigris and eastward of that river. The north-western part of this country was occupied by the Medes, and their capital Ecbatana was situated in a mountainous and healthy district, which was celebrated for the freshness and coolness of its climate in the sum

1

mer heats. Their language was a dialect of the Zend; and their religion was the one which had been founded by Zoroaster. They worshipped fire as the symbol of the Deity, and their priests were the Magi, who formed a distinct class or caste, possessing great influence and power in the state. The people were brave and warlike, and under their successive monarchs they gradually extended their dominion from the Indus on the east to the river Halys in the centre of Asia Minor on the west, Their most celebrated conquest was the capture of Nineveh, which they rased to the ground in B.C. 606.*

§4. The Babylonians were a Semitic people. Their territory comprised the fertile district between the Tigris and the Euphrates, and their capital, Babylon, situated on the latter river, was one of the greatest cities in the ancient world. Herodotus, who visited it in its decline, describes its size and grandeur in terms which would exceed belief, if the truthfulness of the historian was not above all suspicion. It was built in the form of a square, of which each side was 15 miles in length, and it was surrounded by walls of prodigious size, 300 feet high and 75 feet thick. Under Nebuchadnezzar the Babylonian empire reached its height. This monarch extended his dominions as far as the confines of Egypt. He took Jerusalem, and carried away its inhabitants into captivity, and he annexed to his dominions both Judea and Phoenicia. On his death, in B.C. 562, he bequeathed to his son Labynetus (the Belshazzar of Scripture) a kingdom which extended from the Tigris to the frontiers of Egypt and the south of Phoenicia.

§ 5. The Median and Babylonian empires did not include any countries inhabited by the Greeks, and exercised only a remote influence upon Grecian civilization. There was, however, a third power, which rose upon the ruins of the Assyrian empire, with which the Greeks were brought into immediate contact. This was the Lydian monarchy, whose territory was originally confined to the fertile district eastward of Ionia, watered by the Cayster and the Hermus. The capital of the monarchy was Sardis, which was situated on a precipitous rock belonging to the ridge of Mount Tmolus. Here three dynasties of Lydian kings are said to have reigned. Of the two first we have no account, and it is probable that, down to the commencement of the third of these dynasties, Lydia formed a province of the Assyrian empire. However this may be, the history of Lydia begins only with the accession of Gyges, the founder of the third dynasty; and it

*According to Herodotus, there were four Median kings:-1. Deioces, the founder of the empire, who reigned B.c. 710-657; 2. Phraortes, B.C. 657-635; 3. Cyaxares, B.c. 635-595; 4. Astyages, B.C. 595-559.

H*

cannot be a mere accident that the beginning of his reign is nearly coincident with the decline of the Assyrian empire and the foundation of the independent monarchies of the Babylonians and Medes.*

Under Gyges and his successors Sardis became the centre of a powerful and civilized monarchy; and the existence of such a state in close proximity to the Greek cities in Ionia exercised an important influence upon the latter. The Lydians were a wealthy and industrious people, carrying on an extensive commerce, practising manufactures and acquainted with various arts. The Lydians are said to have been the first people to coin money of gold and silver and of the former metal they obtained large quantities in the sands of the river Pactolus, which flowed down from Mount Tmolus towards the Hermus. From them the Ionic Greeks derived various improvements in the useful and the ornamental arts, especially in the weaving and dyeing of fine fabrics, in the processes of metallurgy, and in the style of their music. The growth of the Lydian monarchy in wealth and civilization was attended with another advantage to the Grecian cities on the coast. As the territory of the Lydians did not originally extend to the sea, the whole of their commerce with the Mediterranean passed through the Grecian cities, and was carried on in Grecian ships. This contributed greatly to the prosperity and wealth of Miletus, Phocæa, and the other Ionian cities.

§ 6. But while the Asiatic Greeks were indebted for so much of their grandeur and opulence to the Lydian monarchy, the increasing power of the latter eventually deprived them of their political independence. Even Gyges had endeavoured to reduce them to subjection, and the attempt was renewed at various times by his successors; but it was not till the reign of Cræsus, the last king of Lydia, who succeeded to the throne in B.c. 560, that the Asiatic Greeks became the subjects of a barbarian power. This monarch succeeded in the enterprise in which his predecessors had failed. He began by attacking Ephesus, and reduced in succession all the other Grecian cities on the coast. His rule, however, was not oppressive; he appears to have been content with the payment of a moderate tribute, and to have permitted the cities to regulate their own affairs. He next turned his arms towards the east, and subdued all the nations in Asia Minor west of the river Halys, with the exception of the Lycians and Cilicians. The fame of Croesus and of his countless

* According to Herodotus, there were five Lydian kings:—1. Gyges, who reigned B.C. 716-678; 2. Ardys, B.c. 678-629; 3. Fadyattes, B.C. 629-617; 4. Alyattes, B.c. 617-560; 5. Croesus, B.C. 560-546.