less proper; at other times it is used for forming or delineating some parts of the design, where a spirit of freedom and variety, not to be had in printed outlines, is desired to be had in the work.

The paper designed for receiving flock is first prepared with a varnish-ground with. some proper color, or by that of the paper itself. It is frequently practised to print some mosaic or other small running figure in colors on the ground, before the flock be laid on; and it may be done with any pigment of the color desired, tempered with varnish, and laid on by a print cut correspondently to that end.

The method of laying on the flock is this. A wooden print being cut, as is above described, for laying on the color in such manner that the part of the design which is intended for the flock may project beyond the rest of the surface, the varnish is put on a block covered with the leather or oil-cloth, and the print is to be used also in the same manner, to lay the varnish on all the parts where the flock is to be fixed. The sheet thus prepared by the varnished impression is then to be removed to another block or table, and to be strewed over with flock, which is afterwards to be gently compressed by a board or some other flat body, to make the varnish take the better hold of it, and then the sheet is to be hung on a frame till the varnish be perfectly dry; at which time the superfluous flock is to be brushed

off by a soft camel's-hair brush; and the proper flock will be found to adhere in a very strong manner. The method of preparing the flock is by cutting woollen rags or pieces of cloth with the hand, by means of a large bill or choppingknife, or by means of a machine worked by a horse-mill.

There is a kind of counterfeit flock-paper, whiuh when well managed has very much the same effect to the eye as the real, though done with less expense. The manner of making this sort is, by laying a ground of varnish on the paper; and, having afterwards printed the design of the flock in varnish, in the same manner as for the true, instead of the flock some pigment or dry color of the same hue with the flock required by the design, but somewhat of a darker shade, being well powdered, is strewed on the printed varnish, and produces nearly the same appearance.

Paper-hangings are sometimes spangled with that kind of talc called isinglass, which, being reduced to a gross flaky powder, has a great resemblance to thin silver scales or powder. It is laid on by strewing over the varnish, which forms the ground, before it begins to dry. When it is laid on in a figure, for the representation of embroidery, the figure must be printed in varnish, and the talc strewed upon it, and treated like flock. Smalt may also be used in the same manner as flock or spangles

PAPER-MAKING. The origin of this most useful art, like that of printing, to which it has proved so important an auxiliary, is involved in obscurity. The ancients, we are perhaps too ready to suppose, had comparatively little occasion for paper important MSS. have always been committed to more durable substances; civilisation must become permanent in a country before the frequent interchange of mind by writing is extensively practised, particularly on subjects of temporary importance; and it is in the temporary writings, and the books of the existing generation, rather than those which are handed down to posterity, that the great consumption of paper takes place. Yet, in the annals of that country in which we find the earliest traces of the arts, we read much of paper; which, according to Varro, was first made at Alexandria, in Egypt, from the rush papyrus. Pliny describes its root as of the thickness of a man's arm, and ten cubits long; from this arise a great number of triangular stalks, six or seven cubits high, each thick enough to be easily spanned; its leaves are long like those of the bull-rush; its flowers stamineous, ranged in clusters at the extremities of the stalks; its roots woody and knotty like those of rushes; and its taste and smell akin to those of the cyperus, under which genus Linnæus has classed the papyrus. See PAPYRUS. Various other useful articles were made of this rush, as blankets, mats, garments, and shoes; sails, ropes, and other naval rigging. Moses, according to the Septuagint, was exposed on the Nile, ev ẞn Tаяvρs, in a basket of this

material.

In the Roman writers we find various kinds of Egyptian paper described, as, i. Those denominated from the purposes to which they were applied. Such were (1.) The hieratica, the most ancient kind, and appropriated to religious services: this was afterwards called Augusta, after the emperor of that name, and sometimes Lavinia, in compliment to his wife, who is said to have suggested improvements in bleaching it. This paper seems to have been made of about eleven inches in breadth. (2.) The emporica, or emporetica, a small and coarse paper used by shopkeepers: we perhaps should rank here (3.) The amphitheatrica, from its being used or made in the amphitheatre; but it appears, according to Guilandinus, to have been known long before any building of this kind was erected; and he names it Arthribitica, from Arthribus a city of the Delta.-ii. Various papers were called after the place in which they were manufactured, as, (1.) The Saitica, from the city Sais; (2.) The Taniotica, or Taitica, from a place now unknown. Most of the inland towns and cities of Egypt are said to have had manufactories of this kind: and Vopiscus states that the tyrant Firmus, who rebelled in Egypt, declared he would maintain an army only with paper and glue, 'papyro et glutine,' which Casaubon understands as spoken of the produce and revenue of paper. iii. Other papers were called, as in modern times, after the names of celebrated makers: as, (1.) The Fanniana, from Rhem. Fannius Palæmon, the grammarian, who owned a paper manufactory. This kind was small, but finer than the amphitheatrical paper; and at one time was first

wrought at Alexandria, and finished at Rome. (2.) Claudia, first made by order of the emperor Claudius, and reputed the best of all the kinds made in his time.

The general mode of manufacturing the papyrus was to begin by lopping off the head and root of the plant; the remaining stem was then slit lengthwise into two equal parts, and from each of these they stripped the thin scaly coats or pellicles, of which it was composed, with a needle or the point of a knife. The innermost of those pellicles were looked on as the best, and those nearest the rind or bark the worst; they were kept apart accordingly, for different and inferior sorts of paper. Pliny calls these pellicles by the twelve different names of philura, ramentum, scheda, cutis, plagula, corium, tænia, subtegmen, flatumen, pagina, tabula, and papyrus. The pellicles being thus detached, and, according to the count de Caylus, dried in the sun, were stretched on a table, and two or more laid over each other transversely, so as that their fibres crossed in right angles. The Claudian paper, named above, consisted of three of these pellicles or layers. They were then glued together with the slime of the Nile, or a flour paste; afterwards pressed to get rid of the water; and flatted and smoothed by being beaten with mallets. Sometimes a polish was added by means of a hemisphere of glass, ivory, or bone. The Romans seem to have used a size or gum, whereby they could enlarge or diminish the final volume of the paper, and they excelled in the bleaching and polishing of it.

Varro, who in common with many writers assigns the origin of the manufacture of papyrus to Alexandria, seems to have overlooked several important facts which prove it to have been known to the Greeks before the conquest of Egypt by Alexander. Thus Anacreon Alcæus, Plato the comedian, Aristomenus, Plato the philosopher, Aristotle, and Æschylus, used the terms Blog and Bißiov: and Herodotus, Homer, and Hesiod, expressly mention the papyrus. Pliny cites a passage from an ancient Roman annalist which speaks of paper books found in king Numa's tomb, who was buried above three centuries before Alexander. At the period of Alexander's conquests it seems, however, to have become far more generally known; and, so late as two centuries after, we find stems and barks of trees frequently used for writing upon through the scarcity of paper. In the reign of Tiberius there was such a scarcity of this article that its use in contracts was dispensed with by public authority. In about the twelfth century its manufacture seems to have been entirely discontinued.

Montfaucon and others speak of an ancient Egyptian bark paper, which they distinguish from that made of the papyrus as thicker and more brittle, as well as more apt to part asunder, so that in some instances the bottom layer has been found to remain, and that on which the writing was made has peeled off. Matthei, however, thinks little of this distinction, and contends that the only use of the tilia or linden was for making the boards or tablets used for diptycha or pocket-books; and sometimes to be

written on, on both sides, which the ordinary Egyptian paper would not bear.

A paper made of cotton seems to have been working its way into Europe from the east as early as the tenth century. There are MSS. written on it in fact of this date in the French king's library: and in the twelfth century cotton MSS. became more frequent than those on skins. This paper is that called charta bombyca.

Some anomalous kinds of ancient paper may be here alluded to, and close this part of our sketch. According to the Memoirs de Trev. (Sept. 1711), there are two papal bulls of the dates 891 and 895 (issued by the Anti-popes, Romanus, and Formosus), which are written on an unknown material of this description, two ells long and one broad: they consist of two leaves or pellicles glued together transversely, and are still legible in most places. The conjectures of the French literati in regard to them are very various. Some consider them to be made of the leaves of the alga, or sea-wreck; others of the leaves of a rush, called la boga, found in the marshes of Rousillon; others of papyrus; others of bark; and others of cotton. There is also a MS. of this description in the abbey of St. Germains.

The oriental and other papers made direct from vegetable substances, seem next to require our attention: though all the published details of the mode of manufacturing them are vague and unsatisfactory. There are many palm trees of India and America to which botanists have given the name papyraceous, because the natives have written with bodkins either on the leaves or the bark. Such is the American palm, called tal by the Indians; and the guajaraba of New Spain. Every palm the bark of which is smooth, and the leaves large and thick, may be used for this purpose.

But the art of making paper from vegetables reduced to stuff was known in China long before it was practised in Europe; and the Chinese have carried it to a degree of perfection hitherto unparalleled in the western world.

Every province of their empire has its peculiar paper. That of Se-tchuen is made of hemp or of linen rags, as in Europe; that of Fo-kien of the bamboo; that of the northern provinces, of the interior bark of the mulberry; that of the province of Kiang-nan of the skin found in the webs of the silk-worm; other provinces use the cotton plant extensively, others the bark of the elm, and wheat or rice straw; finally, in the province of Hu-quang, the tre-chu, or ko-chu, furnishes the materials with which they make paper.

The method of fabricating paper with the bark of different trees is nearly the same with that which is followed in the bamboo, of which alone we shall speak. The second skin of the bamboo generally, but sometimes the whole substance, is reduced to pulp by steeping, boiling, and the mortar, and then beat together with the glutinous juice of a plant named ko-teng, till it becomes a thick and viscous liquor. The workmen plunge their forms into this liquor; take out what is sufficient for a sheet of paper, which immediately becomes firm and shining, and is detached from

the form by turning down the sheet on the heap of paper already made, without the interposition of pieces of woollen cloth, as in Europe. The Chinese paper must be dipped in a solution of alum before it can take either ink or colors.

In Japan they manufacture paper from the bark of trees of a prodigious strength. There is a kind of it fit for bed-hangings and wearing apparel; resembling so much stuffs of wool and silk, that it is often taken for them. The following is Kempfer's catalogue of trees used in Japan for the manufactory of paper:-1. The true paper-tree, called in the Japanese language kaadsi, Kempfer characterises thus: papyrus fructu mori celsæ, sive morus sativa foliis urticæ mortuæ cortice papifero. 2. The false papertree, called by the Japanese katsi kadsire; by Kempfer papyrus procumbens lactescens, folio longo, lanceata cortice chartaceo. 3. The plant which the Japanese call oreni is named by Kempfer alva radice viscosa, flore ephemero magno punico. 4. The fourth tree used for paper is the futo-kadsura, named by Kempfer frutex viscosus procumbens folio telephii vulgaris æmulo fructu racemoso.

When the bark they use has been cleansed and sorted, they boil it in clear lie; keeping it from the time it begins to boil perpetually stirred with a strong reed, and pouring from time to time so much fresh lie in as is necessary to condense the evaporation, and to supply what has been lost by it; this boiling is continued till the matter is so tender that being but slightly touched with the finger it will dissolve and separate into fibres. The lie is made of wood ashes, in the following manner: two pieces of wood are laid across over a tub and covered with straw, on which they lay wet ashes, and then pour boiling water upon it, which, as it runs through the straw into the tub underneath, is imbued with the saline particles of the ashes.

After boiling follows the washing of the bark, which is generally performed in a river, and requires great judgment and attention. The bark is put into a sort of sieve, which will let the water run through, and stirred continually till it comes to be diluted into a delicate pulp. For the finer sort of paper the washing is repeated, and the bark put into a piece of linen, instead of a sieve, as the particles become very fine; and the harder, pieces or knots are now picked out. Now the bark is put upon a thick, smooth, wooden table, in order to its being beaten with sticks of the kusnoki wood, which is commonly done by two or three people, until it is so thin as to resemble a pulp of soaked paper; and, being thus prepared, it is put into a narrow tub, with the fat slimy infusion of rice, and the infusion of the oreni root, which likewise is very slimy and mucilaginous. These ingredients being put together are stirred with a thin clean reed, till they are thoroughly mixed and wrought into a uniform liquid substance, of good consistence, and out of this tub the leaves are taken off one by one, on proper patterns made of bulrushes. These to dry them are laid up in heaps, upon a table covered with a double mat, and a small piece of reed is put between every leaf,

which serves, in time, to lift them up and take them off singly.

At the beginning of the summer, when the oreni root is scarce, the paper-makers make use of a creeping shrub called sane kadsura, the leaves of which yield a mucilage in great plenty, though not altogether so good for this purpose. They also use the juncus sativus, which is cultivated in Japan with great care.

The Siamese make a paper of the bark of the pleok-kloi tree, of which they have a black and a white kind: it is folded up in books, in the manner of fans, and will bear to be written on on both sides with a stylus which they make of clay.

The Cingalese also, according to Dr. Davy, write very neatly and expeditiously with a sharp-pointed style on the immense leaf of the talipot-palm: coloring their characters, when scratched by an ink made of lamp-black and gum.' Their numerous books are all formed of these leaves, cut into suitable pieces, and confined by boards: 'occasionally, but rarely,', he adds, 'these books are made of thin copperplates. All the nations on the other side of the Ganges seem to make use of the bark of trees and shrubs for these purposes; the other Asiatic nations on this side the Ganges, the black inhabitants of the most southern parts of India excepted, make their paper of old cotton rags and stuff, and their method differs little from ours in Europe, except that it is more simple, and the instruments less refined. Yet it is very remarkable that what is called India paper (used in taking off our finest copper-plate impressions) cannot be manufactured in England.

We come now to the modern art of papermaking in Europe; or the important and admirable process by which our worn-out clothes and linen are converted into an economical but most efficient, convenient, and often elegant substance, to receive the labors of the pen and the operations of the press. Who first suggested this appropriation of linen rags it seems at this period hopeless to attempt to discover; certainly he bestowed on mankind a service barely exceeded by that of the invention of printing. Various dates have been assigned for its origin. Ray and Milnes (in his Hortus Philosophicus) date it about the year 1470, when it first appeared in this part of the world, says the former, at Guernsey; two persons, named Anthony and Michael, having brought it to Basil, from Galicia in Spain. It would seem most probable indeed that, like much of our other knowledge, this travelled from the east, soon after the taking of Constantinople. Rabelais, who died in 1553, mentions hempen cloth as having been known about 100 years before his time: yet Mabellon and others find paper MSS. dated, they say, so far back as the middle of the fourteenth century; and Dr. Prideaux affirms that he has seen a registration of some acts of John Cranden, prior of Ely, made on paper, which bears date in the fourteenth year of Edward II., i. e. Anno Domini 1320. He however considers that this manufacture was brought to us from the east, through . è Saracenic conquests in Spain. ̧