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PAPA, in geography, a small but strong town of Lower Hungary, in the county of Vesprin. In 1596 the garrison revolted to the Turks, but it was soon retaken by Matthias. It again revolted, and was again retaken from the Turks in 1683, and is subject to the house of Austria. It is seated on a mountain, near the Marchaez; forty-five miles west of Buda. Long. 18°20′ E., lat. 47° 26' N.

PAPA, or PAPA STOUR, i. e. Great Papa, an island of Scotland, in Shetland, a mile west of Main-land, in the parish of Walls and Sandness, about two miles long, and above one broad. The surface is level, the soil sandy; but in a good season, when well manured with sea-ware, yields rich crops of barley, oats, and potatoes, as well as excellent grass. It has several small harbours, which afford safe shelter for the fishing boats, and the beaches are convenient for drying the fish. These advantages have induced a great fishing company from Northumberland to erect drying houses upon it, and send vessels to the fishing. In 1792 it had 285 inhabitants. It has a singular cave through which the sea flows far under the rocks.

PAPA, OF PAPA STRONSAY, an island of Orkney, half a mile north-east of Stronsay, and three miles in circumference. The surface is level, and the soil so fertile that with little improvement it might be rendered one continued corn-field. There are ruins of two chapels on it, dedicated to St. Nicholas and St. Bridget. Mid-way between these is an eminence, called Earl's Know, which has many graves, containing uncommonly large human bodies.

PAPA, or PAPA WESTRAY, an island of Orkney, three miles north-east of Westray, and twenty-five from Kirkwall; four miles long, and one broad. Its form is oval; and the soil is so very fertile that it is reckoned the best arable and pasture-land in the Orkneys. It is divided into twenty-four plough-gates, and contained 240 inhabitants in 1792. About seventy tons of kelp are manufactured annually.

PAPACY, n. s. Į Ital. the pope. PoPAPAL, adj. pedom, the office, state, or dignity, of the pope, or bishop of Rome; papal is relating to or taught by the pope or popery: agreeing with the doctrine of the Romish church; terms like papist, papistical, &c. are often used in unmeaning and unjustifiable reproach. See ROMAN CATHOLICISM.

The pope released Philip from the oath, by which he was bound to maintain the privileges of the Netherlands; this papal indulgence hath been the cause of so many hundred thousands slain. Raleigh.

Now there is ascended to the papacy a personage, that though he loves the chair of the papacy well, yet he loveth the carpet above the chair. Bacon.

The PAPAL STATE, OF STATES, State of the Church, or Ecclesiastical State, so called as forming the temporal dominion of the pope, comprises a country of Italy 240 miles in length from north to south, but of very unequal breadth, being in the central part above 100 miles, and in other parts only twenty or thirty broad. Its superficial extent exceeds 17,000 square miles; but, for so fine a country, it is thinly peopled, containing less than 2,500,000 inhabitants. On

the north it is bounded by the Po, which separates it from the Austrian dominions; on the west by the grand duchy of Tuscany; the Adriatic on the east, and the kingdom of Naples on the south. The congress of Vienna transferred to Austria the Ferrarese territory to the north of the Po, and the French revolution deprived the pope of the districts of Avignon and the Venaissin; but these are the only territorial losses sustained for many years by the papal state.

By the following return, made in 1817, Rome, the capital, and its circuit, contain

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163,372

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This territory is traversed from north-west to south-east by the Appennines, which moderate the violent heats of summer, and give rise to the Tiber and a number of minor streams. In the valleys, among the lower ranges of the Appennines, are several large lakes. The principal are those of Perugia, Bolsena, and Bracciano. the south-west are the Pontine marshes, which corrupt the atmosphere for many miles round; though for the last thirty years canals for draining off these waters have been dug and slowly carried forward: if carefully kept up and extended they would soon, it is thought, add a valuable agricultural tract to the state.

The upper part of the country, comprehending the Marca d'Ancona, the duchy of Spoleto, and part of the legations, enjoys a fine climate, and is well cultivated, producing all kinds of corn and pulse, with excellent wine, fruit, oil, silk, flax, and hemp. Various spots are also favorable to pasturage; so that the rearing of cattle and sheep is prosecuted with success, and great quantities of wool produced. But the Maremna, or lower provinces, towards the Mediterranean, present a very different picture. Although the soil is rich, not a twentieth part is in any tolerable cultivation; and the country is almost deserted from the unwholesomeness of its air. The worst season begins about the middle of July, and continues till the rainy season in October.

Various reasons have been assigned for this, such as the scorching winds of the south, the large quantity of sea-weed thrown upon the coast, the collections of stagnated water, the sulphurous exhalations of the neighbourhood, &c. But a grand cause of evil is the troubles of former ages, and the recent course of weak and inefficient government. Lands are held by short and precarious leases; the time of labor is abridged by endless holidays; numbers of idlers subsist under the characters of monks and pilgrims; and the government has the right of preemption in regard to corn and cattle. In consequence, the farm houses are thinly scattered and meanly built; while the laboring people are wholly neglected as a class. However, the present pontiff, by the abolition of the remaining feudal usages, has made a considerable step in favor of this portion of the state.

The manufactures carried on here are generally undertaken by public institutions, under the direction of some ecclesiastic, and are often supported by an annual allowance from government. On this plan are several woollen manufactories of coarse goods; some silk manufactories, particularly at Bologna, the crapes and gauzes of which place are known throughout Europe. At Rome there is a considerable fabric of tapestry. Foreign leather being prohibited, several extensive tanneries have been established, and this manufacture is perhaps the most thriving of any. In 1770 there was established, at the expense of the apostolic chamber, a manufactory of calicoes, and it has been prosecuted with success; but the workmen are chiefly foreigners. Hats, coarse linens, and hardware, are likewise made in the papal dominions. The chief mineral products are marble, rock-salt, sulphur, and alum.

The little trade carried on in the papal harbours is almost entirely in foreign hands. The chief article of export is wool, which is sent to France and Switzerland, and often returned in a manufactured state. Another large article of export is alum. The imports consist of foreign manufactures, fish, such as tunny from Sicily, cod from Newfoundland, and, above all, pilchards from England. The chief sea-ports are Ancona on the east coast, and Civita Vecchia on the west. Accounts are here kept in scudi, or Roman crowns of 4s. 3d. sterling value, each containing ten paoli or 100 bajocchi.

The pope is invested here with absolute power,, both spiritual and temporal, the government being considered a theocracy. The candidates for the tiara are necessarily members of the college of cardinals, and for some time back they must be Italians by birth. The election, which rested for several centuries with the nobility, clergy, and citizens of Rome, was transferred in the year 1059 to the college of cardinals, the number of the latter being nominally seventy, but seldom complete. The chief ministers of state are the cardinal camerlingo, at the head of the apostolic chamber, and minister of finance; the cardinal secretary of state for foreign affairs; and the cardinal datary, who has the patronage of vacant livings, the dispensations for marriages, and the charge of whatever relates to an

nates or first fruits. To these are added the cardinal vicar, who acts for his holiness as bishop of Rome; the cardinal chancellor, whose functions correspond to those of keeper of the great seal in England; the cardinal auditor, or minister of justice; and, finally, the cardinal secretary of briefs.

The consistory is an assembly of cardinals held under the personal presidency of the pope, and may be either private or public. The former is commonly held once a fortnight. A public consistory is a meeting of all the cardinals, held once a month, when his holiness gives audience to foreign ambassadors. The name of 'congregation' is given to a board or commission held under a cardinal or other prelate. The principal are the Congregation of Ecclesiastical Immunities; one for drawing bulls and dispensations; another for superintending the different communities or corporations; the office of the inquisition (whose powers have been greatly moderated of late); the Congregation of the Index, for aiding the inquisition in regard to prohibited books; the Congregation of Rites, for the regulation of ceremonies throughout the Catholic church; and that for the direction of foreign missions. In the different provinces magistrates hear cases in their first stage, and pass sentence in all except capital charges. Bologna, Ferrara, and Romagna, are the three legations, so called because they are governed by a cardinal, deputed by the pope for three years at a time. In the other provinces, every place with the name of a city has a prelate sent from Rome as a governor. In small places the chief magistrates are sometimes laymen. Generally speaking, the administration throughout the country is mild; but the absurd idea of sacrificing the interests of the provinces to those of the capital obtains every where.

The laws in force are the edicts and ordinances of the different pontiffs, the code of Justinian, and the Pandects; but the reigning pope may alter or annul the existing laws: and each minister acting as a judge, and having a court apart, increases greatly the number of law suits. The principal criminal tribunal for laymen is the sagra consulta, whose authority extends over the whole of the state except the city of Rome. The procedure of this, as of almost all other courts, is characterised by great tardiness and secrecy. Although of course the inhabitants of this state are almost all Catholics, in the large towns there are Protestants of foreign extraction, and many Jews. The number of bishops is about thirty. Literature cannot be called in a flourishing state, though there are numerous learned institutions in Rome, and all the principal towns.

Before the late revolutions the papal revenue was about £600,000 a year, chiefly derived from local taxes; the produce of the annates and, dispensations having done little more, in later times, than discharge the expenses of the boards appointed to manage them. The concourse of pilgrims to Rome is said to be by no means productive of revenue. The taxes consist in duties on wine and brandy; dues on bread and butchers' meat consumed in Rome; customs on imports; and, finally, in a lottery.

The papal troops, including the militia, do not exceed 6000 or 7000. Rome is protected by the castle of St. Angelo. The other fortifications, are Civita Vecchia, Urbino, and Perugia. The navy consists of a few galleys and armed vessels stationed at Civita Vecchia, and capable of repelling the inroad of a corsair, but of no use against men of war, and incapable in rough weather of keeping the sea.

them extremely beautiful. The white officinal poppy is one of the varieties of this sort. It grows often to five or six feet, having large flowers, both singles and doubles, succeeded by capsules or heads as large as oranges, each containing about 8000 seeds. In the province of Bahar, in the East Indies, the poppy seeds are sown in October and November, at about eight inches distance, and well watered till the plants The history of the papal see will more properly are about half a foot high, when a compost of occupy a portion of our article ROME. It may dung, nitrous earth, and ashes, is spread over the 'suffice in this place to notice that in the middle areas; and a little before the flowers appear they of the eighth century the popes first began to are again watered profusely till the capsules are acquire lands and temporal possessions. In half grown, at which time the opium is collected; 1073 the imperious Gregory VII. arrogated su- for when fully ripe they yield but little juice; preme dominion both in church and state: from two longitudinal incisions from below upwards, 1307 to 1377 the residence of the pope was at without penetrating the cavity, are made at sunAvignon; and, from 1379 to 1429, there existed set for three or four successive evenings; in the a violent schism, during which there were two, morning the juice is scraped off with an iron and at one time three, dignitaries assuming the scoop, and worked in an iron pot in the sun's title of pope, and acknowledged by different heat till it is of a consistence to be formed into states of Europe. This considerably weakened thick cakes of about four pounds weight; these the papal influence, and paved the way for the are covered over with the leaves of poppy, toReformation in 1517. Next came the wars of bacco, or some other vegetable, to prevent their religion, which continued at repeated intervals sticking together, and in this situation they are until the peace of Westphalia in 1648. After dried. The somniferous quality of the poppy this the business of the papal see was in a great resides in the milky juice of the capsule. See measure confined to arrangements relative to OPIUM. It grows in England, generally in negparticular orders, and to the formation of con- lected gardens, or uncultivated rich grounds, and cordats with Catholic countries. Matters went flowers in July and August. This species is on thus until the interests of the church were at- said to have been named white poppy from the tacked by the measures of the emperor Joseph whiteness of its seeds; a variety of it, however, II., and the French revolution. The French is well known to produce black seeds; the douconvention proceeded to a total rejection of the ble-flowered white poppy is also another variety; papal authority in France; the territory of the but, for medicinal purposes, any of these may be Holy See was invaded in 1796 and 1797, and employed indiscriminately, as there is no differthe French were on the eve of entering Rome; ence in their sensible qualities or effects. The seeds, but peace was obtained by the payment, it is according to some authors, possess a narcotic said, of £1,500,000 sterling, and a great cession power, but there is no foundation for this opinion; of territory. Still more serious oppression was they consist of a simple farinaceous matter, exercised by the French directory in 1798; but united with a bland oil, and in many countries Buonaparte, on attaining supreme power, af- are eaten as food. As a medicine, they have fected to respect the pope, while he made him been usually given in the form of emulsion, in instrumental to his own views. He concluded a catarrhs, stranguries, &c. The heads or capconcordat for France in 1802; and two years sules of the poppy, which are directed for use in after the pope repaired to Paris to crown him the pharmacopoeias, like the stalks and leaves, emperor. But this cordiality was of short dura- have an unpleasant smell, somewhat like that of tion. The pope had too strong feelings of inde- opium, and an acrid bitterish taste. Both the pendence for the new king of Italy: Rome was smell and taste reside in a milky juice, which occupied in 1808 by the French troops, and the more especially abounds in the cortical part of pope conveyed a prisoner, first to Savona, and the capsules, and in its concrete state constitutes afterwards into France, where he remained until the officinal opium. These capsules are power1814, when the success of the allies restored fully narcotic or anodyne; boiled in water, they him to most of his former possessions and pre- impart to the menstruum their narcotic juice, torogatives. See ROME. gether with the other juices which they have in common with vegetable matters in general. The liquor, strongly pressed out, suffered to settle, clarified with whites of eggs, and evaporated to a due consistence, yields an extract which is about one-fifth or one-sixth of the weight of the heads This possesses the virtues of opium, but requires to be given in double its dose to answer the same intention, which it is said to perform without occasioning a nausea and giddiness, the usual effects of opium. This extract was first recommended by Mr. Arnot; and a similar one is now received in the Edinburgh Pharmacopœia. It is found very convenient to prepare the syrup from this extract, by dissolving one drachm in

PAPAVER, the poppy. See BOTANY, Index. A genus of the monogynia order, and polyandria class, natural order twenty-seventh, rhoeædæ: COR. is tetrapetalous: CAL. diphyllous: CAPS. bilocular, opening at the pores below a persisting stigma.

1. P. album, or somniferum, the white, or somniferous garden poppy, rises with an upright smooth stalk, dividing or branching a yard or more high; garnished with large, deeply jagged, amplexicaule, smooth leaves; and terminated by large, spreading, dark purple, and other colored flowers, in the varieties, having smooth cups and capsules. There are many varieties, some of VOL. XVI

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two pounds and a half of simple syrup. The syrupus papaveris albi, as directed by both colleges, is a useful anodyne, and often succeeds in procuring sleep, where opium fails; it is more especially adapted to children. White poppy heads are also used externally in fomentations, either alone, or, more frequently added to the decoction pro fomento.

2. P. Cambricum, the Welch poppy, has a perennial root, pinnated cut leaves, smooth, upright, multiflorous stalks, a foot and a half high; garnished with small pinnated leaves, and terminated by many large yellow flowers, succeeded by smooth capsules. It flowers in June.

3. P. orientale, the oriental poppy, has a large, thick, perennial root; long, pinnated, sawed leaves; upright, rough, uniflorous stalks, terminated by one deep red flower, succeeded by oval, smooth capsules. The flowers appear in May.

4. P. rhoeas, the wild globular-headed poppy, rises with an upright, hairy, multiflorous stalk, branching a foot and a half high; garnished with long, pinnatifid, deeply cut, hairy leaves; the stalk terminated by many red and other colored flowers in the varieties, succeeded by globular smooth capsules. This plant is common in corn fields, and flowers in June and July. It may be distinguished from the papaver dubium, to which it bears a general resemblance, by its urn-shaped capsules, and by the hairs upon the peduncles standing in a horizontal direction. The capsules of this species, like those of the somniferum, contain a milky juice, of a narcotic quality, but the quantity is very inconsiderable, and has not been applied to any medical purpose; but an extract prepared from them has been successfully employed as a sedative. The flowers have somewhat of the smell of opium, and a mucilaginous taste, accompanied with a slight degree of bitterness. A syrup of these flowers is directed in the London Pharmacopeia, which has been thought useful as an anodyne and pectoral, and is therefore prescribed in coughs and catarrhal affections; but it seems valued rather for the beauty of its color than for its virtues as a medicine. All the kinds are hardy, and will prosper any where. The first and last species, being annual, are to be propagated only by seeds; but the others by parting the roots as well as by

seeds.

PAPAV'EROUS, adj. Lat. paparareus, from papaver, a poppy. Resembling poppies. Mandrakes afford a papaverous and unpleasant odour, whether in the leaf or apple. Browne. PAPAW', n. s. Fr. papayer; Ilind. pupucy, low Lat. papaya. A plant.

The fair papaw,

Now but a seed, preventing Nature's law,
In half the circle of the hasty year,
Projects a shade, and lovely fruit does wear.

Waller.

PAPAW, in botany. See CARICA. PAP-CASTLE, an ancient castle of England, in Bridekirk parish, Cumberland, which stood two miles from Cockermouth, on the other side of the Darwent, whose Roman antiquity is proved by several monuments; and a large green stone vessel found here, with little images upon it, is supposed to have been formerly a Danish font

for dipping of infants; and has been since used at Bridekirk in the neighbourhood for sprinkling. The name of Pap-castle seems to be contracted from Pippard its owner; it is said to have been demolished, and the materials employed to build Cockermouth Castle. Mr. Routh, in a letter to Mr. Gale, thus describes the ruins discovered at Pap-castle, January 16th, 1743. 'The close in which they lay is a little to the south of the fort, on the declivity of the hill to the river, and bounded on the west by a narrow lane, probably the via militaris continued; and is usually shown to strangers as the most remarkable here for finding Roman coins. They are the largest ruins ever known to be discovered in these parts; for they met with three walls, besides the pavement.' Mr. Routh, in another letter to Mr. Gale, April 13th, 1743, describes a fibula, a coin of Trajan found it. Dr. Stukely says, the Roman castrum lies on the top of the hill above the village, and he traced its whole circumference, a bit of the Roman wall by the river side going to Wigton, and there the ditch is plainly visible, though half filled up with the rubbish of the wall. Coins of Claudius, Adrian, and a silver Geta, PONT. rev. PRINCEPS IVVENTVTIS, were also found in it. He supposes ancient name, Derventio, derived from the Der

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Fr. papier; Lat. papyrus. A well known substance used for

writing and printing upon; a portion of paper; single sheet; deed; essay; account, or statement; used variously for what is contained on paper or on a sheet of paper: as an adjective, made of paper; hence slight or thin: to paper is, to register; commit to, line, or adorn with paper: for paper-maker, paper-making, and paper-mill, see below.

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'Tis as impossible to draw regular characters on a trembling mind, as on a shaking paper. Locke. There is but a thin paper wall between great discoveries and a perfect ignorance of them. Burnet. They brought a paper to me to be signed. Dryden. Do the prints and papers lie? Swift.

would have had intelligence of your papers. As this I was in hopes that in coming to Leicester you is not the case you ought immediately to advertize them, &c. Warburton.

Sir,-In a literary performance, by a juvenile author, I feared to find intermixed much of the com mon trash of periodic diapers; stories of love ad

ventures.

Canning.

PAPER, INCOMBUstible. An incombustible paper is made of the lapis asbestos, or linum vivum, which will bear burning without being injured. Dr. Bruckman, professor at Brunswick, published a natural history of the asbestine, or incombustible paper; and printed four copies of his book thereon. Vide Bibl. Germ. tom. xiv. p. 190.

The manner of making this paper is described by Mr. Lloyd (Phil. Trans. No. 166, p. 824), from an essay made by himself. He pounded a quantity of the asbestos in a stone mortar, till it became a downy substance; then sifted it in a fine searce, and by this means purged it indifferently well of its terrene parts; because the earth or stones he could not pick out of it before, or at the pounding, being reduced to a powder, came through a searce, the linum remaining. This done, he brought it to the paper-mill: and, putting it in water, in a vessel just big enough to make a sheet with such a quantity, he stirred it pretty much, and desired the workmen to proceed with it in the usual method, with their writing-paper mould; only to stir it about always before they put their mould in; considering it as a far more ponderous substance than what they used; and that consequently, if not immediately taken up after it was agitated, it would subside. The paper made of it proved but coarse, and was very apt to tear; but this was the first trial, and the workmen did not doubt, but in case it were pounded in one of their mortars for twenty hours, it would make good writing-paper. See ASBESTOS.

PAPER-HANGINGS, in the arts, are of various. kinds, and are used for the covering of ceilings, walls, stair-cases, &c., and represent stuccowork, velvet, damask, brocades. chintzes, or such silks and stuffs as are employed for hanging rooms: hence their name. The principal difference in the manufacture lies in the grounds. The common grounds are laid in water, and made by mixing whitening with the common glovers' size, and laying it on the paper with a proper brush in the most even manner. This is all that is required where the ground is to be left white; and the paper being then hung on a proper frame till it be dry is fit to be painted. When colored grounds are required, the same method must be pursued, and the ground of whiting first laid, except in pale colors, such as straw-colors or pink, where a second coating may sometimes be spared, by mixing some strong color with the whitening.

There are three methods by which paperhangings are painted; the first. by printing on the colors; the second, by using the stencil; and the third, by laying them on with a pencil, as in other kinds of painting.

1. When the colors are laid on by printing, the impression is made by wooden prints, cut in such a manner that the figure to be expressed is made to project from the surface; and this being charged with the colors tempered with their proper vehicle, by letting it gently down on a block on which the color is previously spread, conveys it from thence to the ground of the paper on which it is made to fall by means of its weight, and the effort of the arm of the person

who uses the print. It is easy to conclude that there must be as many separate prints as there are colors to be printed. But, where there are more than one, great care must be taken after the first to let the print fall exactly in the same part of the paper as that which went before, otherwise the figure of the design would be brought into irregularity and confusion. In common paper of low price it is usual, therefore, to print only the outlines, and lay on the rest of the colors by stenciling, which both saves the expense of cutting more prints, and can be practised by common workmen, not requiring the great care and dexterity necessary to the using several prints.

In the finer paper, where several colors are laid on with the prints, the principal color is begun with: and the rest taken successively; the print for the outline being laid on last. In cases where the pencil is to be used, the outline is nevertheless to be made before the colors are laid on by the pencil, if such outline is to be made at all; because that is the guide to the persons who lay on the color; and confines them to a correctness. In paper printed with designs in chiaro-scuro, such as the imitation of stuccowork, and bas relievos, the order of printing must be, to lay on the ground color first; afterwards the shades; and lastly the lights; and the same rule of succession must be observed where the colors are penciled.—Handmaid to the Arts, vol. ii. p. 445, &c.

2. The manner of stencilling the colors is this. The figure, which all the parts of any particular color make in the design to be painted, is to be cut out in apiece of thin leather or oil-cloth, which pieces of leather or oil-cloth are called stencils; and being flat on the sheets of paper to be printed, spread on a table or floor, are to be rubbed over with the color properly tempered by means of a large brush. The color passing over the whole is consequently spread on those parts of the paper where the cloth or leather is cut away, and gives the same effect as if laid on by a print. This nevertheless is only practicable in parts where there are only detached masses or spots of colors; for where there are small continued lines, or parts that run one into another, it is difficult to preserve the connexion or continuity of the parts of the cloth, or to keep the smaller corners close down to the paper; and, therefore, in such cases, prints are preferable. Stencilling is indeed a cheaper method of accomplishing the work than printing; but, without such extraordinary attention and trouble as render it equally difficult, it is far less beautiful and exact in the effect. For the outlines of the spots of color want that sharpness and regularity that are given by prints, besides the frequent extralineations or deviations from the just figure, which happen by the original misplacing of the stencils, or the shifting of the place of them during the operation.

3. Pencilling is only used in the case of nicer work, such as the better imitations of the Indian paper. It is performed in the same manner as other painting in water or varnish. It is sometimes used only to fill the outlines already formed by printing, where the price of the color, or the exactness of the manner in which it is required to be laid on, render the stencilling or printing it

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