siderable number at a time; and in the British Museum there are four of them all united together as taken out of the mould in which perhaps dozens were cast together. In process of time, however, the smaller divisions were struck in stead of being cast; but the larger still continued to be cast until the as fell to two ounces. Even after this time it was still called libra, and accounted a pound of copper: though there were now larger denominations of it coined, such as the bissas or double as: tressis and quadrussis of three and four asses; nay as far as decussis or ten asses, marked X. Olivieri mentions one in his own cabinet weighing upwards of twenty-five ounces, and cast when the as was about three ounces' weight. There is likewise in the Museum Etruscum a decussis of forty Roman ounces, cast when the as was at four ounces. There was likewise a curious decussis in the Jesuits' library at Rome, for which an English medallist offered £20; but it was seized by the pope along with every other thing belonging to the society.

The as decreased in weight at the following periods. About the year 300 B. C. it weighed ten ounces-eight ounces about 290-six ounces about 280-four ounces about 270-three ounces about 260-two, according to Pliny, about 250 one according to the same author, about 214and about 175 he says that the as was reduced to half an ounce by the Papyrian law, at which it continued till the time of Pliny himself, and long after.

After the Romans began to have an intercourse with Greece a variety of elegant figures appear upon the parts of the as, though not on the as itself till after the time of Sylla. Towards the latter end of the republic also, dupondii, or double asses, were coined, together with the sestertii ærei, which came in place of the quadrusses, when the denarius began to be reckoned at sixteen asses; probably at the time the latter was reduced to half an ounce. In some instances it is to be observed that the Romans accommodated their coins to the country where their army was stationed; whence we have many coins marked as Roman, which have been coined in Magna Gracia and Sicily, and are evidently upon the Greek and not the Roman scale. In the latter part of the republican times, also, the types begin to vary; so that we have a brass coin supposed to be struck by Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, having upon it a double head of that warrior, representing a Janus. This coin is of copper, and still weighs an ounce, notwithstanding its antiquity.

The largest imperial copper coin was the sestertius, a piece worth about two-pence of our

money.

No change took place in the Roman coinage from the time that the as fe" to half an ounce to the days of Pliny: but before the time of Julius Casar yellow brass began to be used, and was always looked upon to be double the value of Cyprian or red copper. There are but few coins in large brass immediately before Julius Cæsar, or even belonging to that emperor; but from the time of Augustus downward, the large coins are all found of brass, and not one of them copper. The largest of what are called the middle size are all

of yellow brass; and the next size, which is the as, and weighs half an ounce, is universally copper. What the ancients named orichalcum, or what we call brass, was always looked upon to be greatly superior in value to the as cyprium. Procopius tells us that brass inferior in color to gold is almost equal in value to silver. The mines of native brass were very few in number, and were owing entirely to the singular combination of copper and lapis calaminaris in the bowels of the earth, which very seldom occurs; and the ancients were far from being well acquainted with the method of combining these two bodies artificially; so that yellow brass was always esteemed at double the value of copper: and hence, in the ancient coinages, the brass and copper pieces were kept as distinct as those of gold and silver.

The sestertius underwent no change, till the time of Alexander Severus, when it was diminished by one-third of its weight. Trajanus Decius was the first who coined double sestertii, or quinarii, of brass: but from the time of Trebonianus Gallus to that of Gallienus, when the first brass ceases, the sestertius does not weigh above the third part of an ounce; the larger coins are accounted double sestertii; and after the time of Gallienus it totally vanishes. In the time of Valerian and Gallienus we find a new kind of coinage, mentioned by the name of denarii æris, or Philippi ærei. Two sizes of denarii began to be used in the time of Caracalla, the larger of six sestertii, or twenty-four assaria; the smaller of four sestertii, or sixteen assaria, as usual. In the time of Pupienus the latter was reduced to such a small size as not to weigh more than thirty-six grains; though in Caracalla's time it weighed fifty-six. After the time of Gordian III. the smaller coin fell into disuse, as breeding confusion. The larger denarius of six sestertii, though diminished at last to the size of the early denarius, still retained its value of six sestertii, or twenty-four assaria. The Philippus æreus came at length in place of the sestertius. It was also called denarius; from which we may learn, not only their size, but that they were in value ten assaria, as the first denarius. In the reign of Dioclesian, the place of the sestertius was supplied by the follis, that emperor having restored the silver coin to its purity, and likewise given this form to the copper; but it would seem that this restoration of the coinage only took place towards the end of his reign; whence we have but few of his silver coins, and still fewer of the follis, though the denarii ærei continue quite common down to the time of Constantine. The follis of Dioclesian seems to have weighed above half an ounce; and that Dioclesian designed this coin to supply the place of the denarius æreus; which of course was worth ten assaria, and six of them went to the silver denarius. From this time the assarium diminishes to the size of thirty grains; and soon after the follis appeared the denarius æreus was entirely dropped, the former having gradually supplied its place. Some mints appear to have retained the use of the denarius longer than others; and in some the change was preceded, and gradually brought in, by washing the follis with silver or

tin as the denarius had formerly been. Pieces of this kind occur in the times of Dioclesian, Maximian I. and II., and Constantius I.; that is, for about ten years after the follis made its appearance. Some countries, however, retained the denarius æreus; others the follis; and some had a medium betwixt the two, or the follis washed in imitation of the denarius.

Towards the end of the reign of Constantine I. a new coinage was introduced throughout the whole empire. The follis coined by this prince was of half an ounce weight; twenty-four of them going to the milliarensis, or larger silver coin. The word follis signifies also a purse, in which sense we sometimes find it mentioned in the Byzantine history. The common follis of silver, when it occurs by itself, means a purse of 250 milliarenses, as the sestertium was 250 denarii; and, by a law of Constantine I., every man paid to the state a follis or purse according to his income. The method of counting by purses continues in Turkey to this day.

The dupondius was only half the value of the sestertius, or about one penny sterling; and before the yellow brass appeared it seems to have been struck upon copper, and double the size of the as. There are some of this coin, struck in the time of Julius Cæsar in yellow brass, weigh ing half an ounce; with a head of Venus Victrix upon one side; on the reverse a female figure, with serpents at her feet; while others have a Victory on the reverse, with Q. Oppius Pr. After the time of Augustus the dupondius was struck in yellow brass; which Pliny tells us was also the case in his time. The word dupondiarius seems to have been used by Pliny, and adopted, not to express that the coin was dupondius, but that it was of dupondiary value. Neither was the former word confined to signify double weight, but was used also for double length or measure, as in the instance of dupondius pes, or two feet, &c. In the imperial times, therefore, dupondius was used, not to signify a coin of double the weight of the as, but of double the value. It was one of the most common of the Roman coins; and seems to have been very common even in Constantinople. The dupondius, though of the same size with the as, is commonly of finer workmanship, the metal being greatly superior in value. It continued to be of yellow brass, as well as the sestertius, to the time of Gallienus; but the as is always of cop

per.

The imperial as, or assarium, was worth only a halfpenny. At first it weighed half an ounce, and was always of copper till the time of Gallienus, when it was made of brass, and weighed only the eighth part of an ounce. From the time of Gallienus to that of Dioclesian it continued to diminish still more, the size being then twenty to an ounce. This was the same with the lepta, or smallest coins but the vouμia, which weighed only ten grains.

The parts of the as occur but seldom; which may indeed be well expected considering the low value of it; though there still occur some of those called semis, triens, quadrans, sextans, and uncia, coined in the times of Nero and Domitian. There is no small brass from the time of Perti

nax to that of Gallienus, excepting that of Trajanus Decius; but in the time of Gallienus i becomes extremely common; and the coins of small brass, as well as the larger, are always marked S. C. (such as want it universally being accounted forgeries), and were plated with silver, though the plating be now worn off. The small pieces struck for slaves during the time of Saturnalia must also be distinguished from the parts of the as. The S. C. upon these most probably signifies Saturni Consulta, and were struck in ridicule of the true coins, as the slaves on that occasion had every privilege of irony.

The sestertius diminishes from Pertinax to Gallienus so fast that no parts of the as are struck, itself being so small. Trajanus Decius, indeed, coined some small pieces, which went for the semis of the time. The small brass coins under Gallienus were called assaria, sixty of which went to the silver denarius. They are about the size of the denarius, and some of them occur, of the coinage of Gallus and his family, of half that size, which appear to have been struck during the latter part of his reign, when the assarium was diminished to a still smaller size. It is probable, however, that some of these very small coins had been struck in all ages of the empire, in order to scatter among the people on solemn occasions

The assarion or lepton of the Constantinopolitan empire was one of the smallest coins known in antiquity, weighing no more than twenty grains; and the noumia were the very smallest which have reached our times, being only onehalf of the former. By reason of their extreme smallness they are very scarce; but Mr. Pinkerton had a fine one of Theodosius II. which has on it the emperor's head in profile, Theodosius P. F. AV.; on the reverse a wreath, having in the centre voT. XX.: MULT. Xxx.

The principal coin of the lower empire was the follis, which was divided into a half and a quarter, named quoopoλeos and terρаTTOV; the latter of which is shown by Du Cange to have been a small brass coin. Besides these the follis was divided into eight oboli, sixteen assaria or lepta, and thirty-two noumia, though in common computation it contained forty of these last. This coin, notwithstanding so many divisions, was of no more value than a halfpenny.

There are pieces of Justinian which weigh a whole ounce; but the size of copper was increased as the silver became scarcer; and the value of the coinage cannot be deduced from the weight of the coins, as it is plain that our own coinage is not of half the value with regard to the metal. A great number of medallions were struck by Constantius II., but there is no other copper larger than the half ounce, excepting that of Anastasius, when the follis began to be struck larger. All medallists allow the others to be medallions.

The metal employed in these very small coins, though at first of brass, was always a base and refuse kind; but copper is generally made use of in the parts of the as from the earliest times to the latest; and if brass be sometimes employed it is never such as appears in the sestertii and dupondiarii, which.is very fine and beautiful,

but only the refuse. Yellow brass of the right sort seems totally to have ceased in the Roman coinage with the sestertius, under Gallienus, though a few small coins of very bad metal appear under that hue as late as Julian II. Silver began to be coined in Rome so late as A. U. C. 485, or A. A. C. 266.

The first silver denarii coined at Rome are supposed to have been those which are impressed with the ROMA. There are fifteen of these in the cabinet of Dr. Hunter; one of the largest weighs ninety-eight grains and a quarter; and the rest, which seem to be of greatest antiquity, are of various weights betwixt that and eighty-four; the smaller and more modern weigh fifty-eight or fifty-nine grains; but the large ones are of the very first Roman coinage, and struck during that interval of time betwixt the coinage of the first silver denarius and the as of two ounces. The indentation of the word ROMA is a mark of great antiquity; such a mode being scarcely known any where else, except in Caulonia, Crotona, and other towns of Italy; all of them allowed to be struck at least 400 B. C. As these large coins are not double denarii they must have been struck prior to the small ones; and Newmann has given an account of one of them recoined by Trajan, in which the indentation of Roma is carefully preserved. The first denarius was in value ten asses, when the as weighed three ounces; and, allowing ninety grains at a medium for one of these large denarii, the proportion of copper to silver must have been as one to 160; but when the as fell to one ounce the proportion was as one to eighty; when it fell to half an ounce, so that sixteen asses went to the denarius, the proportion was as one to sixty-four, at which it remained. Copper with us, in coinage, is to silver as one to forty; but in actual value as one to seventy-two.

At Rome the denarius was worth eight pence; the quinarius four pence; and the sestertius, whether silver or gold, two pence. The denarius is the coin from which our penny is derived, and was the chief silver coin in Rome for 600 years. According to Celsus, seven denarii went to the Roman ounce, which in metals did not exceed 430 grains; but, as all the denarii hitherto met with weigh at a medium only sixty grains, this would seem to make the Roman ounce only 420 grains; though perhaps this deficiency may be accounted for from the unavoidable waste of metal even in the best preserved of these coins. According to this proportion, the Roman pound contained eighty-four denarii; but in tale there was a very considerable excess; for no fewer than 100 denarii went to the Roman pound. The Greek ounce appears to have been considerably larger than that of Rome, contaming about 528 grains; yet, notwithstanding this apparently great odds, the difference in the coins was so small, that the Greek money went current in Rome, and the Roman in Greece. The denarius at first went for ten asses, and was marked X; it was afterwards raised to sixteen; which Mr. Pinkerton supposes to have been about 175 B.C. Some are met with bearing the number XVI.; nay, with every number up to CCCCLXXVI. These large numbers are

supposed to have been mint-marks of some kind or other. After being raised to sixteen asses, it continued at the same value till the time of Gallienus; so that, till that time, we are to look upon its constituent parts to be sixteen asses or assaria, eight dupondii, four brass sestertii, and two silver quinarii. Under the emperor Severus, however, or his successor Caracalla, denarii were struck of two sizes, one of them a third heavier than the common; which we must of consequence suppose to have borne a third more value. This large piece obtained the name of argenteus, and argenteus Philippus, or the 'silver Philip;' the name of Philip having become common to almost every coin. The common denarii now began to be termed minuti and argente Philippi minutuli, &c., to express their being smaller than the rest. Some have imagined that the large denarii were of the same value with the small, only of worse metal. The first mention of the minuti is in the time of Alexander Severus, who reduced the price of pork from eight minuti at Rome to two and to one. The minutus argenteus of that age was about forty grains; and, from the badness of the metal, was not worth above four pence of

our money.

According to Zozimus, and other writers, the purity of the Roman coin was restored by Aurelian; and his successor Tacitus is said to have allowed no brass to be mixed with the silver on any account; yet the few coins of this emperor are very much alloyed. We are certain, however, that the emperor Dioclesian restored the silver to its ancient purity; the denarii struck in his reign being very small indeed, but of as fine silver as the most ancient coins of the empire. After Gordian III. the small denarius entirely vanished, while the large one was so much diminished that it resembled the minutus, or small one of Caracalla, in size. Gallienus introduced the denarii aerei instead of the sestertii. The argenteus, though reduced more than one-third in size, contained six denarii ærei, the old standard of the sestertii. According to the writers of this period, and some time afterwards, the denarius argenteus contained sixty assaria; whence it follows that each denarius æreus had ten; and from this it probably had its name. The assaria are of the size of the argentei already mentioned; and show the copper to have retained nearly its old proportion of value to the silver, viz. one to sixty.

A larger silver coin was introduced by Constantine I., who accommodated the new money to the pound of gold in such a manner that 1000 of the former in tale were equal to the latter in value; so that this new piece from thence obtained the name of the milliarensis. Its weight, at a medium, is seventy grains, or seventy to the pound of silver. The code says that sixty went to the pound; but the numbers of this are quite corrupt. The milliarensis was worth about a shilling sterling. The argentei denarii, however, were still the most common currency; and, having been originally rated at the 100 to the pound of silver in tale, they from hence began to be called centenionales, or 'hundreders.' Those of Constantine I. and II., Constans and Constantius, weigh from fifty

grains down to forty; those of Julian and Jovian, from forty to thirty; and of the succeeding emperors, from that time to Justinian, from thirty to twenty. Under Heraclius they ceased entirely; and, from Justinian to their total abolition, had been brought down from fifteen to ten grains. A like decrease of weight took place in the milliarensis; those of Constantine and Constans being above seventy grains in weight; those of Arcadius not above sixty; and the milliarensis of Justinian not more than thirty grains. These coins were also called majorinæ.

The smaller silver coins of Rome were, 1. The quinarius, åt first called victoriatus, from the image of Victory on its reverse; and which it continued to bear from first to last. Its original value was five asses, but it was afterwards raised to eight, when the value of the denarius increased to sixteen. According to Pliny, it was first coined in consequence of the lex Clodia, about the 525th year of Rome. Some are of opinion that it was called Kɛpariov under the Constantinopolitan empire, because it was worth a Kepariov of gold, 144 of which went to the ounce; but this is denied by Pinkerton, because, at the time that the word Kepariov first appears in history, the denarius did not weigh above thirty grains: and of consequence, as twenty-five must have gone to the gold solidus, of which there were six in the ounce, 150 denarii must have gone to the ounce of gold. He is therefore of opinion that the word Kepariov was only another name for the denarius when much reduced in size; probably owing to the great scarcity of silver in Constantinople, though in the same city there was plenty of gold; and of consequence the gold solidus was never diminished. The quinarius diminishes in size along with the other coins; those of Augustus weighing thirty grains, of Severus twentyfive, of Constantine I. twenty, of Justinian twelve, and of Heraclius only five. A new silver coinage seems to have taken place after the days of this emperor; as the little we then meet with, which in the best cabinets scarce exceeds a dozen of coins, consists entirely of large unshapely pieces of coarse metal.

2. The consular denarius had also four silver sestertii, till the as fell to half an ounce, when it was thought proper to coin the sestertius in brass, as it continued to be ever afterwards. 'The very last silver sestertius which appears is one with a head of. Mercury, and H. S.; on the reverse a caduceus P. SEPVLLIVS; who appears to be the P. SEPVLLIVS MACER of the denarii of Julius Cæsar. If so, as is most probable, the sestertius was coined in silver down to Augustus; and it is of course not to be expected that any of the brass can appear till Augustus, under whom they are actually quite common. Not one silver sestertius appears during the whole imperial period; yet we know that the sestertius was the most common of all silver coins. The consular sestertii of silver, marked H. S., are not uncommon, nor the quinarii; but the latter are very scarce of all the emperors, if we except one instance, the ASIA RECEPTA of Augustus.

scruple went for sixty sesterces. It was afterwards thought proper to coin forty pieces out of the pound of gold. And our princes have by degrees diminished their weight to forty-five in the pound.' This account is confirmed by the pieces which still remain; for we have that very coin weighing a scruple, which went for twenty sesterces. On one side is the head of Mars, and on the other an eagle; and it is marked **. We have another coin of the same kind, but double, marked ****; and its triple, or sixty; the being the old numeral character for fifty.'

The aurei, or Roman gold coins, were at first forty-eight in the pound; but they were afterwards diminished in number to forty, owing to an augmentation in the weight of each coin. In the time of Sylla, the aureus weighed no less than from 164 to 168 grains, and there were only thirty in the pound; but such confusion in the coinage was introduced by that conqueror, that no person could know exactly what it was worth. Till this time the aureus seems to have continued of the value of thirty silver denarii, about one pound sterling; for about that time it was enlarged a whole third, that it might still be equivalent to the full number of denarii. But after Sylla had taken Athens, and the arts and manners of Greece became objects of imitation to the Romans, the aureus fell to forty in the pound, probably when Sylla had abdicated his dictatorship. Thus, being reduced near to the scale of the Greek xovoog, it passed for twenty denarii, as the latter did for as many drachmas, being in currency thirteen shillings and four pence sterling. We know from Suetonius that Cæsar brought from Gaul so much gold that it sold for nine times its weight of silver; but the Gallic gold was of a very base sort.

In the time of Claudius, the aureus was valued at 100 sestertii, or twenty-five silver denarii, at which it continued till the time of Heliogabalus, when it fell to about ninety-two grains at a medium, or rose in number to fifty-five in the pound. In the reign of Philip, during which the city completed its 1000th year, the aureus was coined of two or three sizes. These are impressed with a head of Rome on one side, and various figures on the other; but the workmanship is so rude that they are supposed to have been struck in some of the more uncivilised provinces of the empire. The practice of having different gold coins, however, continued under Valerian, Gallienus, and his successors. In the time of Gallienus, they were of thirty, sixty-five, and from eighty-six to ninety-three grains; the double aurei being from 172 to 183 grains; but the aureus, properly so called, was from eighty-six to ninety-three; those of thirty and thirty-two being the trientes aurei of the Historia Augustæ Scriptores; while the larger, from sixty-two to sixty-five, are to be accounted double trientes, and were perhaps called minuti aurei. The value of these different sizes of aurei is not known.

That Aurelian made some alteration in the coin is certain; but Pinkerton supposes it to have been only in the gold; because, under him and his successor Probus, the common aureus was of 100 grains, a size confined to those emperors; there are likewise halves of about fifty grains; and double aurei, commonly of very

fine workmanship, of upwards of 200 grains. In the time of Gallienus, the precious metal was so common that this emperor vied in magnificence with Nero and Heliogabalus. Aurelian, who plundered the rich city of Palmyra, and thus became master of the treasures of the east, obtained such a profusion of gold that he looked upon it to be produced by nature in greater plenty than silver.

In his reign a terrible rebellion took place among the money coiners, which is generally ascribed to his having ordered the gold to be restored to its former size, but to pass for no more silver than it had formerly done. So very little silver occurs of this period (and indeed we learn from history that but little was struck) that it is evident no alteration in that coinage could occasion disturbance; and in the brass no change was attempted. But when he ordered the aureus, which had fallen to eighty grains, to be raised to about 100, it is not surprising that the contractors should make an uproar; for a whole quarter of their coinage amounting, as would seem, to about the whole of their profit, was lost to them. Aurelian judged that, when he found gold so common in the east, it was equally so in the west, and that therefore the moneyers in that part of his empire were making most exorbitant profits. Such, however, does not appear to have been the case; and after his short reign, which did not continue above five months after the alteration, the gold returned to its former course, although a few pieces occur of Aurelian standard, struck, as would seem, in the commencement of the reign of Probus his successor. From this time to that of Constantine I. the aureus weighed between seventy and eighty grains; but in his reign it was changed for the solidus, of which six went to the ounce of gold, which went for fourteen milliarenses and twentyfive denarii as before, the value of silver being now to that of gold as fourteen to one. This new coin continued of the same value until the final downfal of the western empire, gold being always very plentiful in Constantinople, though silver became gradually more and more scarce. The solidus was worth twelve shillings sterling. The gold coins called Bezants in Europe, because sent from Byzantium, were solidi of the old scale, six to the ounce. In Byzantine writers the solidi are named from the princes whose portraits they bear, as Michaelate Manuelati. Solidus is a term used also for the aureus, even in the prætorian edicts of Trajan, and by Apuleius, who lived in the time of Antoninus; but in the time of Valerian, when aurei of different sizes had been introduced, it became necessary to distinguish what particular kind of aurei were meant. Hence, in the Imperial Rescripts published by the Historiæ Augustæ Scriptores, Valerian uses the terms aurei Philippi and Philippeos nostri vultus for the common aurei. Gallienus uses aurei Valeriani for his father's coins; aurei Antoniani are likewise put by Valerian for coins of the early Antonini, which were of superior standard to any then used.

In the first gold coinage of Rome the aureus was divided into four parts, the semissis of sixty sestertii; the tremissis of forty; the fourth, the name of which is never mentioned, of thirty;

and the scrupulum of twenty. But in a short time these fell into disuse, except the semissis, or half, which also is extremely scarce. It appears to be an erroneous opinion that the semissis was sometimes called a denarius aureus. Indeed the aureus itself had this name; and the name of quinarius would be applied to the semissis with greater propriety than the former. Trientes of gold are found of Valerian and his son Gallienus, and weigh about thirty grains, while those of Salonia, the wife of Gallienus, weigh thirty-three grains. Under the western empire trientes again made their appearance; and from the time of Valentinian downwards are the most common gold coins, these being worth about four shillings sterling. The semissis is likewise mentioned, but none occur earlier than the time of Basiliscus. The gold tremissis was the pattern of the French and Spanish gold coins; as the silver denarius, in its diminished state, was of the Gothic and Saxon penny.

The deities and personifications in Roman coins have so generally their names in the legend, that it is not necessary to give any lengthened description or explanation of them; some few may however be noticed. When an ensign stands alone on the reverse of a Roman colonial coin, without any persons, it shows a colony drawn from one legion; but when more than one ensign appears, it evinces the colony to have been drawn from as many legions as there are ensigns. A bull on these coins often represents Apis as a symbol of strength and security: such was probably the bull upon the reverse of the common coin of India, VICTA, with two stars over him, and the legend SECURITAS REIPUB. The caduceus marks peace and concord; the cornucopia abundance; the pontifical hat the priesthood. They all appear upon a reverse of Julius Cæsar, and are symbols of the concord of the empire, and the plenty which attended his power; the last symbol denoting that he was Pontifex Maximus. The 'parazonium' on Roman coins was a baton of command, and not a pointless dagger, as it has been described by many antiquaries. In later times the globe on an altar, with three stars, is supposed to typify the world preserved by the gods for the three sons of Constantine I. The fort and the gate are symbols of security. The altar is a well known mark of piety: the tripod was a portable altar, used in temples for liquid offerings, as the altar was for solid sacrifice.

The palm-tree, on both Greek and Roman coins, is symbolic of Phoenicia, where that tree flourished; as the silphium is of Cyrene, from the earliest times down to those of the western empire.

Titles are generally found upon the face of the medal. These are titles of honor, as Imperator, Cæsar, Augustus, given to all the Roman emperors after Octavianus; Dominus, first assumed by Aurelian: other titles given to particular persons on account of their virtues, as Pius to Antoninus, and with the addition of Felix to Commodus. Pater Patriæ, first bestowed on Cicero, on his discovering and defeating the conspiracy of Catiline, and afterwards assumed by the emperors; Justus, the title of Pescennius; Beatissimus and Felicissimus, of Diocle