clarinet, and bassoon, whilst others imitate the trumpet, trombone, cremorne, &c., and extend only through certain portions of the clavier; i. e. according to the diapason or natural compass of the instruments imitated. But in order to provide for these deficiencies of the clavier other stops of a corresponding quality of tone are joined with the short stops. The materials employed for the formation of pipes are wood, copper, pewter, and tin; copper and pewter amalgamated form the metal; lead, wood, and lead; lead and tin or pewter amalgamated; silver and copper gilt, white iron and carton. In general the harder the substance, as copper and silver, pewter or tin, the more brilliant or piercing the tone. Pipes of wood or lead, on the contrary, give soft sounds; there are also pipes of porcelain, glass, and baked earth; these are far less subject to be out of order by the change of temperature of the atmosphere than those of wood or metal.

An organ pipe of the deepest species will not suddenly intonate when not accompanied with the sound of another pipe; but, if its octave be in play at the same time, it will answer the fleetest touch upon the clavier: because the tone of the largest pipe, being in accordance, causes a motion of the air contained in the greater pipe, and the vibrations of the contained air, being coincident with those of the sound of the pipe, promote its speaking by putting the pulses of the mouth into a regular motion. The greater the pipe the less quickly it intonates of itself, and the shorter, therefore, the pipe the more suddenly it intonates a principle imperatively requiring a suitable mixture of stops for the production of simultaneous and correct harmony.

To the temperament given to the principal, all other stops are tuned; it extends throughout the clavier and is made of wood, also of metal. The lowest pipe of this stop measures either four, eight, sixteen, or thirty-two feet in length.

An organ, however large and numerous its stops, is never displayed to advantage if entirely tuned in octaves and unisons to the principal; and unless the third, decima, tenth, or seventeenth, and the fifth, or twelfth, of each of these octaves and unisons be heard at one and the same time, much of the brilliancy and richness of the organic sound would be lost. Stops denominated thirds and fifths are therefore inserted amongst the list of organ stops. But as these thirds and fifths which, without trial, one might be induced to think insufferable to the ear when repeated in succession throughout the instrument, constitute perfect major harmonic combinations of sound, their effects, as may easily be understood, would be intolerable were they suffered to predominate over the unisons and octaves of the other stops: perfect harmonics by direct movement being strictly forbidden; and a major species of harmonic combination of sound would be set in opposition, occasionally, with the minor mode, to the dominant of which it could only satisfactorily amalgamate. These accessory stops, although extending throughout the organ, do not absolutely comprise, on account of their peculiar diapason or extent, more than three octaves; these are repeated in the lower part of the clavier. Flutes,

tierces, and fifths, comprising each an extent of one octave only, are occasionally repeated to every octave of the clavier: a system productive of the finest effects. The greater number of stops tuned in octaves and unisons, the greater must be the proportion of tierces, fifths, and compound stops. The tierce stop is considered higher than the fifth, a principle ascertained to be derived from nature: every sonorous body producing by its vibrations the sounds of the twelfth and seventeenth major. See SOUND.

Cornets and mixtures are designated compound stops.

Cornets are of three species, consisting of five ranks of pipes each,, called the grand cornet, solo cornet, and echo cornet, each lever of which causes five different pipes to sound at the same time, viz. the octave, fifth, fourth, and major third, yet they produce but one sound: for instance, when the lever or the note C is held down it produces the octave, its twelfth, double octave, and its seventeenth major, but C is only supposed to be heard or appreciated, which proves that sound is not a simple element, but an aggregate of concomitant sounds. The cornet stops were formerly much used in churches with the diapasons in the interludes, and giving out of the psalms. In modern organs these compound stops, from motives of economy, in England, have been superseded by others of the reed species. Dr. Smith is mistaken in saying that the best tuning of an organ cannot wholly prevent that disagreeable battering of the ears with a constant rattling noise of beats, quite different from all musical sounds, and destructive of them, chiefly caused by the compound stops called the cornet, mixture, and sesquialter: these battering effects arising in cases only where a disproportionate force is given to the fundamental stops of the octaves and unisons.

The mixture is composed of four, six, eight, ten, and, upon the continent, often extends to twelve ranks of pipes. The pedals have also their mixture stops, and are in proportion to those belonging to the claviers: without this proportion the inequality of tone would be insupportable and totally destructive of harmony. Mixtures are divided into the great, middle, and little, of which one, two, or the whole may, by the action of a coupling stop, be brought to act simultaneously with the other stops, i. e. according to the proportionate force required by quantity, and quality of tone given to the different claviers.

The bellows expiring and inspiring the air by turns by the aid of levers, give a brisk agitation to the air by enlarging and contracting its capacity. This pneumatic machine has been much improved of late in England in the horizontal bellows; a column of air being now supplied and drawn at the same moment by the action of a crank and other appendages, instead of levers, &c., upon four feeders and pumpers.

Organs vary in size, and are of two, four, five, six, seven,fifteen, twenty, thirty-six, forty-six, fiftysix, sixty, sixty-one, sixty-five, seventy-five, and eighty stops, with from one to five claviers, and one or two claviers for the feet.

The following is the description of the organ

First clavier.

of two feet in pewter.

Fifth Clavier.

ter.

18. Clarion of four feet, four octaves, pewter.

Second clavier.

1. Montre (front) of thirty-two feet, the upper half the clavier of pewter, the other of oak.

2. Montre of sixteen feet, an open stop made of pewter.

3. Bourdon of eight feet, stopt diapason.
4. Montre of eight feet, open diapason.
5. Flute of eight feet, open.

6. Grand cornet of five ranks of pipes, in pewter.

7. Bourdon, of four feet stopt; the treble and tenor open and made of pewter; the bass stopt, and made of oak.

8. Prestant of four feet, open.

9. Great nazard of six feet, sounding the fifth of eight feet.

10. Nazard, an open stop of three feet, the fifth of the prestant of four feet, in pewter.

11. A quarter nazard, an open stop of two feet in unison with octave of the prestant, of four feet in pewter.

12. Great tierce of three feet. 13. Little tierce.

14. Doublette the octave of the prestant. 15. Furniture of nine ranks of pipes. 16. Cymbale of five ranks. This stop is occasionally composed of nine ranks of pipes. 17. Trumpet of eight feet.

2. Bourdon, an echo stop, with a funnel at the top of each pipe.

3. Cornet of five ranks of pipes.

4. Trumpet.

5. Clarion.

7. Pedal of the bombarde of thirty-two feet;

a reed stop in wood.

8. Pedal ditto of twelve feet.

9. Trumpet pedal of twelve feet.

10. Second trumpet pedal of twelve feet.
11. Clarion pedal of six feet.

12. Two pedals of tremblants.

These stops consist of moveable machines placed in the principal channel of the windchest, near the port-vent to intercept the regular current of air. Turning upon their axes by the force of the wind, they give to the sound of the organ a trembling or beating effect, of which there are two sorts called the gentle and violent tremblants; the former consists of one plate, and the latter of two plates, of iron, inversely placed and fastened to a piece of wood. On certain occasions of divine service in the Roman church, these stops are exceedingly effective.

In addition to the number of stops already noticed, of which we have not their equivalents in England, are the flute creuse, cors de nuit, nassat, tibia angusta, flautone, musette, salcional, chalameau, shallmey, ranquet, regal, sourdine, viola da gamba, viol d'amour, violoncello, unda maris, vox angelica, forest flute, fistula vulgaris, bear flute, cornemuse, flageolet, bass cornet, violin, carillon or campanetta, bird stops of the nightingale and cuckoo, timbals, cymbals, fanfares, fugara, double flutes, bissera, and the

etoile, which consists of an immense number of small pieces of sonorous metal all turning upon separate axes, serving, by the action of the wind conducted from the wind-chest, to prolong the ressonance of a pair of cymbals.

The etymology of many of the terms given to the above stops is unknown; their powers as combined with others more generally known to us being unnecessary to describe, we will conclude this article with a few remarks upon the proper management of the stops generally alloted to organs of English manufacture; of these, for the great organ, are open diapasons, stopt diapasons, principal, twelfth, fifteenth, tierce, mixture, or furniture, sesquialtra, trumpet, and cornet. For the choir organ are the stopt diapasons, flute, principal, twelfth, fifteenth, mixture, cremona, and vox humana; and for the swell are the open diapason, stopt diapason, principal, cornet, trumpet, and hautboy.

To produce the most perfect combination of organic sound, the flute stops form the principal attention of the experienced organists of Germany; the depth and shrillness of all other stops as of thirty-two, sixteen, four, two and one foot, being so arranged by them, that the greater powers of the larger pipes do not stifle the less powers of the smaller pipes.

A stop remarkable for its softness of tone must never be set in opposition with a powerful toned stop; several of the former may be effectively employed with the latter.

Too great a distance between the octaves, as for example, between a sixteen and a two feet stop, must be avoided; a stop is well supported by another of an octave higher, as a thirty-two and a sixteen feet stop. A distance of an octave, or even a double octave, may be advantageously adopted in the performance of a solo, especially with a stop of peculiar qualities, as of the reed species, giving the harmonic support to the solo with the other hand upon a different clavier.

To the stops in general use, as the diapasons and principal, must be added, for the accompaniment of the psalms, tierces, twelfths, octaves, and fifteenths, according to their nearest proportions, and in proportion to the number of people assembled for the celebration of the divine service.

To the full organ may be added the reed stops and the whole play of the pedals; to the choir organ half the play of the pedals.

Reed stops, being of peculiar structure, require a different mode of treatment. They are used principally in solos, and in such a manner as appears best suited to the powers or expresston of the human voice intended by the composer to be imitated. From the nasal qualities of some of the reed stops they should never be employed in the accompaniment of the psalms. The disagreeable qualities of some of the reed stops are lost in the combination with flute stops of eight or four feet.

Particular attention should be paid to the style of music to be executed, in order that the stops employed should be applicable to the expression required. In the performance of a specimen of harmony in four, five, or six sustained parts, flutes and diapasons are necessary,

and the reed stops are on no account to be tolerated. The attention of the organist is also particularly directed to the study of the lugubrious effects so peculiar to the stopt diapasons than which, when combined with the flute, nothing interests the heart so much or prepares the soul to devotional feeling. On the continent organs for this purpose are muffled or covered with cloth, and the tremblants are used. The expert organist profits greatly by the multiplicity of claviers, employing one for the harmonic support of the melody and the pedals for the bass, and another for the melody suitable for the diapasons of instruments or voices intended to be imitated, producing by this display of his tact, genius, and experience, the most grateful sensations upon the minds of the congregation.

The facility with which organists of Germany and France execute difficult passages with their feet upon the pedals, displaying at the same time their intimate knowledge of the powers of harmony upon different claviers with their feet, is truly astonishing, and, to musicians conversant only with the music generally adopted in the church of England, the recital of these extraordinary feats appears incredible. High heeled shoes facilitate much the execution of quick passages for the pedals.

From the great variety of forms and modes of worship observed in the Roman and Protestant churches in Germany, France, Italy, and Switzerland, the qualifications requisite for an organist are of greater magnitude than those necessary for one of the church of England. But, unfortunately, such is the degraded state to which sacred music is brought in our churches, that the ability of playing one of Handel's overtures and a couple of psalm tunes, are considered by the umpires deputed to decide upon the merits and demerits of the musical candidates, to be the only requisites for the regular installment of an organist. Hence, instead of a well conducted musical education, which, next to respectability of character, ought at all times to be the passport to the exercise of the honorable functions of an organist, persons of mean pretensions are put into the possession of the majority of the organs in the metropolis; a misfortune, tending not only to the exclusion from the celebration of divine service of that talent and experience which upon all occasions, would ensure the correct and judicious performance of the finest specimens of harmony and melody, of the German, Italian, and English schools, thereby forming and improving the taste for good music in England, but to facilitate the introduction of those contemptible and interminable effusions designated extemporaneous performances, which, resulting nearly in all cases from gross ignorance, throw ridicule upon the principles of music as a science, and are with difficulty to be endured with common decency although performed in the sanctuary.

The best and indeed the only criterion of the abilities of an organist is his intimacy with the finest specimens of classical music, and his power of performing them with facility and judgment. But, to ensure at all times the mode most suitable for the church, every parish should be provided

ancient times; aud the authors of the French Encyclopedie assure us that our brass is a very recent invention. It appears, however, from Pliny's Natural History, lib. xxxiv, sect. 2, and from the concurring testimony of other writers, that orichalcum was not a pure or original metal; but that its basis was copper, which the Romans changed into orichalcum by means of cadmia, a species of earth which they threw upon the copper, and which it absorbed. The testimony of Ambrose, bishop of Milan, in the fourth century; of Primasius, bishop of Adrumentum, in Africa, in the sixth; and Isidorus, bishop of Seville, in the seventh, all confirm Pliny's account. We may therefore safely conclude that the Romans knew the method of making brass by mixing cadmia or calamine with copper; yet it is probable they were not the inventors of this art. It appears from a variety of testimonies that brass was made in Asia, in a manner very similar to that at Rome; and it is supposed that in India it was made in the remotest ages. It is generally supposed that there were two sorts of orichalcum, one factitious, the other natural. The factitious, whether we consider its qualities or composition, appears to have been the same with our brass. As to the natural orichalcum, it is not impossible that copper ore may be so intimately blended with ore of zinc, or of some other metallic substance, that the compound, when smelted, may yield a mixed metal of a paler hue than copper, and resembling the color of either gold or silver. In Du Halde's History of China we meet with the following account of the Chinese white copper: The most extraordinary copper is called de-tong, or white copper; it is white when dug out of the mine, and still more white within than without. It appears, by a vast number of experiments made at Pekin, that its color is owing to no mixture; on the contrary, all mixtures diminish its beauty; for, when it is rightly managed, it looks exactly like silver; and were there not a necessity of mixing a little tutenag, or some such metal, with it, to soften it and prevent its brittleness, it would be so much the more extraordinary, as this sort of copper is perhaps to be met with nowhere but in China, and that only in the province of Yun-nan.'-Vol. I., p. 16. Notwithstanding this, it is certain that the Chinese white copper, as brought to us, is a mixed metal; so that the ore from which it is extracted must consist of various metallic substances, and from some such ore it is possible that the natural orichalcum, if ever it existed, may have been made. But, though the existence of natural orichalcum cannot be proved impossible, yet there is reason to doubt whether it ever had a real existence. We know of no country in which it is now found; nor was it any where found in the age of Pliny; nor does he seem to have known the country where it ever had been found. Plato acknowledges that orichalcum was a thing only talked of in his time; it was nowhere then to be met with, though in the island of Atlantis it had been formerly extracted from its mine. The Greeks were in possession of a metallic substance, called orichalcum, before the foundation of Rome; for it is mentioned by Homer and by

Hesiod in such a manner as shows that it was then held in great esteem. Other ancient writers have expressed themselves in similar terins of commendation; and it is principally from the circumstance of the high reputed value of orichalcum that authors are induced to suppose the ancient orichalcum to have been a natural substance. But this conclusion cannot be justly drawn from their encomiums upon it; for, at whatever time the method of making it was first discovered, both its novelty and scarceness, joined to its utility, would enhance its value. Respecting the etymology of the word there is great diversity of opinions. Those who write it aurichalcum think it is composed of the Latin word aurum, gold, and the Greek xaλkoç, brass or copper. The most eneral opinion is, however, that it is composed of opog, a mountain, and xaλkog, alluding to its being found in mountains. See Memorials of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, vol. ii. The following etymology is also given, which seems equally well founded, and is as ingenious as either. The Hebrew word or, aur, signifies light, fire, flame; the Latin terms uro, to burn, and aurum, gold, are derived from it, inasmuch as gold resembles the color of flame; and hence it is not improbable that orichalcum may be composed of a Hebrew and a Greek term, and that it is rightly rendered flame-colored copper. In confirmation of this, the Latin epithet lucidum, and the Greek one panvov, are both applied to orichalcum by the ancients.

ORICUM, or ORICUS, an ancient town of Epirus, with a good harbour, on the Ionian Sea, founded by a colony from Colchis; called, also, Dardania, because Helenus, the son of Priam, king of Troy or Dardania, reigned in it along with Andromache, after the destruction of Troy.

O'RIENT, adj. & n. s. ORIENTAL, adj. & n. s. ORIEN TALISM,

Fr. orient; Latin oriens. Rising, as the sun hence ORIEN TALLY, adv. eastern; bright; shining; the east: oriental is, eastern; proceeding from, or pertaining to, the east; and, as a noun-substantive, an inhabitant of that part of the globe: orientalism, an idiom of the east; an eastern mode of expression.

The liquid drops of tears that you have shed, Shall come again transformed to orient pearl; Advantaging their loan with interest, Oftentimes double gain of happiness. Shakspeare.

We have spoken of the cause of orient colors in birds; which is by the fineness of the strainer.

Bacon's Natural History. Your ships went as well to the pillars of Hercules, as to Pequín upon the oriental seas, as far as to the borders of the east Tartary.

Bacon.

There do breed yearly an innumerable company of gnats, whose property is to fly unto the eye of the lion, as being a bright and orient thing.

Abbot.

Wherefore hath he clothed the trees in cotton, or the fields with flax-wherefore hath he treasured up such orient and pleasing colors in grains and fishes, if

Hall.

not for the use and behoof of man?
Moon, that now meet'st the orient sun, now fly'st,
With the fixed stars.
Milton's Paradise Lost.
In thick shelter of black shades embowered,
He offers to each weary traveller
His orient liquor in a crystal glass,
To quench the drouth of Phœbus.

Milton.