Quintilian seems to think the hands as necessary and powerful in action, as Cicero the eyes. The hands,' says he, without which all gesture is lame and weak, have a greater variety of motions than can well be expressed; for they are almost equal to our words. In short he styles them the common language of all mankind.' In admiration, and addresses to heaven, they must be elevated, but never raised above the eyes in speaking of things below us, they are directed downwards. Side motions should generally begin from the left, and terminate gently on the right. In demonstrating, addressing, and on several other occasions, they are moved forward; and in threatening sometimes thrown back. But, when the orator speaks of himself, his right hand should be gently laid on his breast. When no other motion is necessary, the hands should be kept about as high as the breast. This is not only a graceful, but likewise the most easy posture, and gives the least strain to the muscles. They should never be suffered to hang down, or loll upon a cushion or bar. The left hand should never move alone, but accommodate itself to the motions of the right. In promises and expressions of compliment, the motions of the hands should be gentle and slow; but in exhortations and applause more swift. The hands should generally be open; but in expressions of compunction and anger they may be closed. All finical and trifling actions of the fingers ought to be avoided. The feet should continue steady, and not give the body a wavering and giddy motion by frequently shifting; though some persons fall into that habit without moving their feet. Philip, the Roman orator, was wont to tell his friends, he was never fit to talk, till he had warmed his arm.' He doubtless, therefore, used a more violent motion with his arms and hands than is common with us. And Cicero calls the arm projected the orator's weapon. To speak low at first has the appearance of modesty, and is best for the voice: which, by rising gradually, will with more ease be carried to any pitch that may be afterwards necessary, without straining it. However, some variation of the voice is always proper to give it harmony. Sometimes it is not improper for an orator to set out with a considerable degree of warmth, expressed by such an elevation of the voice and gestures of the body as are suited to represent the emotions of his mind. But this is not ordinarily the case. We have some happy instances of it in Cicero; as in his oration for Roscius Amerinus, where the heinousness of the charge could not but excite his indignation against the accusers. And in that against Piso, and the two first against Catiline, which begin in the same manner, from the resentment he had conceived and wished to inspire against their persons and conduct. In narration the voice ought to be raised to a higher pitch. Facts should be stated distinctly and accurately, with a proper emphasis laid upon the principal circumstances. The proposition should be delivered with a clear and audible voice, and its divisions distinctly marked. The confirmation admits of a great variety, both of voice and gesture; and the reasoning ought to be accompanied with suitable actions. In confutation, the arguments of the opposite party should be stated plainly and distinctly, unless they appear unworthy of a serious answer; in which case they may be answered with humor, or exposed with ridicule. Tubero, having made it part of his charge against Ligarius that he was in Africa during the civil war between Cæsar and Pompey, Cicero, in his reply, said, 'Cæsar, my kinsman, Tubero has laid before you a new crime, and till this day unheard of, that Q. Ligarius was in Africa !' In a conclusion, both the voice and gesture should be brisk and sprightly, which may seem to arise from a sense of the speaker's opinion of the goodness of his cause, and that he has offered nothing but what is agreeable to reason and truth; as likewise from his assurance that the audience agree with him in the same sentiments. In every undertaking that requires care and thought persons are apt at first to be sedate and moderate, but when it is drawing to an end, and is nearly finished, it is very natural to appear more gay. If an enumeration of the principal arguments of the discourse be convenient, as it sometimes is, where they are pretty numerous, or the discourse is long, they ought to be expressed in the most clear and forcible manner. Thus have we laid before our readers a brief but comprehensive view of the principles, rules, chief requisites, and practice of oratory. But, after all, it may be said of the orator as of a poet, nascitur non fit.' But the student of this science should consider his own genius. We seldom find that any actor can excel in all characters, but if he performs one well he is deficient in another; and therefore he commonly confines himself to such as best suit his powers. The case is the same with the orator, who should keep within those bounds which nature has prescribed. Every one should endeavour to know his own powers, and act in aid of them, as in most cases nature may be much assisted and improved by art. ORATORY, a small closet or apartment near a bed-chamber, furnished for private devotions. ORB, n. s. Fr. and Ital. orbe; Lat. orbis. A sphere; globular or circular body; hence the eye; a wheel; circle; particularly a heavenly body or light; circle or revolution of such a body; mundane circle; period; OR'BY, adj. evolution of time: orbed and orbicular mean rounded, circular, or globular; as does the obsolete word orby: orbit is chiefly used for the line of a planet, path, or revolution; and by Young, improperly, as a diminutive of orb. It smote Atrides' orbie targe; but runne not through the brasse. Chapman. Orbed in a rainbow, and like glories wearing. Id. Id. With smiling aspect you serenely move In your fifth orb, and rule the realm of love. Dryden. They with a storm of darts to distance drive The Trojan chief; who held at bay from far, On his Vulcanian orb sustained the war. Id. That fine part of our constitution, the eye, seems as much the receptacle and seat of our passions, appetites, and inclinations, as the mind itself. Love, anger, pride, and avarice, all visibly move in those little orbs. Spectator. A golden axle did the work uphold, Gold was the beam, the wheels were orbed with gold. Addison. The form of their bottom is not the same; for whereas before it was of an orbicular make, they now look as if they were pressed. Id. By a circle I understand not here a perfect geometrical circle, but an orbicular figure, whose length is equal to its breadth, and which as to sense may seem circular. Newton. A mighty collection of water, inclosed in the bowels of the earth, constitutes an huge orb in the interior or central parts; upon the surface of which orb of water the terrestrial strata are expanded. Woodward's Natural History. Suppose more suns in proper orbits rolled, Dissolved the snows and chaced the polar cold. Blackmore. Suppose the earth placed nearer to the sun, and revolve for instance in the orbit of Mercury; there the whole ocean would even boil with extremity of heat, and be all exhaled into vapours; all plants and animals would be scorched. Bentley. Attend, and you discern it in the fair Young. Ancient dame, how wide and vast, Cowper Glorious orb! the idol ORB, in military tactics, is the position of a number of men in the form of a hollow circle. The celebrated marshal de Puysegur prefers this position for a body of infantry in an open country to resist cavalry, or even a superior force of infantry; because it is regular and equally strong, and gives an enemy no reason to expect better success by attacking one place than another. Cæsar drew his whole army in this form when he fought against Labienus. The whole army of the Gauls were formed into an orb, under the command of Sabinus and Cotta, when fighting against the Romans. This orb was generally formed six deep. ORBE, ORBEN, or URBACH, a neat built town of West Switzerland, in the Pays de Vaud, on the river Orbe, over which is a bridge. The most remarkable objects of the place are a curious hydraulic engine, and the botanical garden. Population 2000: seven miles south-west of Yverdun. ORBELUS, a mountain chain of European Turkey, to the westward of the great Hanus ridge, and rising to the greatest elevation to the south of Sophia. Parts of this track contain silver, copper, and iron ores, and the Turks have here some valuable mines. ORBIT, in astronomy, is the path of a planet or comet, or the curve that it describes in its revolution round its central body; thus the earth's orbit is the curve which it describes in its annual course round the sun. See ASTRO NOMY. ORBITELLO, a town and fortress of Tuscany, in the province of Sienna, situated on a kind of promontory projecting into a lake of this name, about eighteen miles in circuit. It has a good harbour, defended by several forts. With the sea it communicates only by a narrow number of eels which are caught here (some of inlet. It is chiefly remarkable for the size and them weighing from eight to ten lbs.), and which are sent to Rome, Naples, and various large towns. Eighty miles north-west of Rome, and ninety south of Florence. ORC, n. s. Lat. orca; Gr. opvya. A sort of sea-fish. An island salt and bare, The haunt of seals and orcs, and sea-mews' clang. Milton. OR'CHARD, n. s. Saxon outgeard, either hortyard or wortyard, says Skinner. The Goth. aurt, and Sax. oɲt, seem to correspond with the Lat. hortus. A garden of fruit trees. Planting of orchards is very profitable, as well as pleasurable. Bacon's Advice to Villiers. They overcome their riches, not by making Baths, orchards, fish-pools. Ben Jonson. His parsonage-house from an incommodious ruin he had rendered a fair and pleasant dwelling, with the conveniences of gardens and orchards. Fell. Her private orchards walled on every side, To lawless Sylvans all access denied. Pope. Hence from the busy joy-resounding fields In cheerful error let us tread the maze Of Autumn unconfined, and taste revived The breath of orchard big with bending fruit. Thomson. An ORCHARD is a portion of garden ground appropriated to the growth of standard fruittrees, or for furnishing a large supply of the most useful kinds of fruit. The trees are mostly apple, pear, plum, and cherry-trees; to render the orchard more complete, it may also contain quinces, medlars, mulberries, service-trees, filberts, Spanish nuts, barberries, walnuts, and chestnuts. The two last sorts, as well adapted for sheltering the others from high winds, should, Mr. Forsyth thinks, be planted in the boundaries of the orchard, a little closer than ordinary for that purpose. In providing trees too much care cannot be taken to admit of none but such as have good roots, fair clean stems, and proper heads; and at the same time attention should be paid that a proper assortment of the different sorts be procured for the supply of the table during the whole year. A few of the summer sorts are sufficient, but more of the autumn, and still a larger quantity of the winter kind will be necessary. Large orchards of apples are only met with in districts where cider-making is conducted upon a large scale. In some counties, as Kent, there are orchards wholly of cherries, or of cherries and filberts. In general, however, there ought to be a much larger proportion of apples than of any other fruit in orchards, as in proper situations they are very profitable, and always of fine appearance. The extent of ground for an orchard must be proportioned, in some measure, to the extent of land, and the quan.ity of fruit required either for private use or for public supply; so that an orchard may be from half an acre to twenty or more in extent. With respect to the situation of an orchard, we may observe very thriving orchards both in low and high situations, on declivities and plains, in various aspects or exposures, provided the soil is good; but very low damp situations should be avoided as much as possible; for in very wet soils no fruit trees will prosper; but a moderately low situation, free from copious wet, may be more eligible than an elevated ground, as being less exposed to tempestuous winds. Yet a situation having a small declivity is very desirable, especially if its aspect incline towards the east, south-east, or south, which are more eligible than a west aspect; but a north aspect is the worst of all, unless compensated by the good quality of the soil. And, as for soil, any common field or pasture that produces good crops of corn, grass, or kitchen vegetables, is suitable for an orchard, which should be sheltered from the east, north, and westerly winds, by suitable plantations, where not naturally protected by hills or rising grounds: but such plantations, when they consist of foresttrees, should neither be too large nor too near VOL. XVI. the orchard; as, where that is the case, they prevent a free circulation of air. Mr. Forsyth advises, where the ground does not admit of such plantations, planting cross rows of fruit-trees, in the manner directed in gardens, as well as some of the largest growing trees, nearest the outsides exposed to those winds, two or three rows of which should be planted closer than ordinary, which would greatly shelter those in the interior parts of the orchard, and be of great service, in addition to the walnut and chestnut trees, as mentioned above. Orchards succeed well on a chalk bottom, or subsoil. On such a soil Mr. Forsyth has seen roots twelve feet deep, and the trees thrive well. Where the bottom is clay the roots should be cut-in once in four years, to prevent them from penetrating the clay, which would greatly injure the trees. Whatever the nature of the soil may be, it should have a good depth, as two or three feet. The preparation of the ground for the reception of trees is by trenching; or, if for very considerable orchards, by deep ploughing; but trench digging, one or two spades, as the soil will admit, is the most eligible, either wholly or partially, in the places where the lines of trees are to stand, a space of six or eight feet wide, all the way in each row, especially if it be grass-ground, and intended to be kept in the sward; or, if any of the under crops are designed to be raised, the ground may be wholly trenched at first; in either case trench the ground in the usual way to the depth of the natural soil; and, if in grass, turn the sward clean to the bottom of each trench, which, when rotted, will prove an excellent manure. In planting orchards, however, on grass grounds, some only dig pits for each tree, capacious enough for the reception of the roots, loosening the bottom well, without the labor of digging any other part of the ground. The ground must be fenced securely against cattle, &c., either with a good ditch and hedge, or with a paling fence, as may be most convenient. In bad shingly or gravelly soils Mr. Forsyth recommends that holes should be dug at least three feet deep, and filled up with good mould; if mixed up with rotten dung, rotten leaves, or other manure, the trees will in time amply repay the expense: the dung used for this purpose should be that from the melon and cucumber beds, mixed with the mould from the same, when the beds are broken up in autumn, or winter; and be laid up in heaps, and continued so for one year at least; but be frequently turned, an have some good fresh mould mixed with it. The best season for planting all sorts of fru trees is autumn, soon after the fall of the lear from about the end of October until December; or in open weather from October until March. Of apples and pears in particular, choose a much greater quantity of the autumnal and late kinds than of the early sorts; but most of all apples; for the summer fruit is of short duration, only proper for temporary service; but the later ripening kinds keep sound for some considerable time for autumnal use; and the later sorts, that ripen in October, continue in perfection for various uses all winter, and several sorts until the season X of apples return. Having made choice of the proper sorts, and marked them, let them be taken up with the utmost care, so as to preserve all their roots as entire as possible; and, when taken up, prune off any broken or bruised parts of the roots, and just tip the ends of the principal roots, in general, with the knife on the under side, with a kind of slope outward. If the trees have been already headed, or so trained as to have branched out into regular shoots to form each a proper head, they must be planted with the heads entire, only retrenching or shortening any irregular or ill-placed shoot that takes an awkard direction, or grows across its neighbours, or such as may run considerably longer than the rest, &c. The arrangement of the trees must be in rows, each kind separate, at distances according to the growth of the different sorts; but for the larger growing kinds, such as apples, pears, plums, cherries, &c., they should stand from twenty-five to thirty feet every way asunder, or forty feet at most. Each species and its varieties should generally be in rows by themselves, the better to suit their respective modes of growth: though for variety there may be some rows of apples and pears arranged alternately, as also of plums and cherries; and towards the boundaries there may be ranges of lesser growth, as quinces, medlars, filberts, &c., and the outer row of all may be walnut-trees, and some chestnuts, set pretty close to defend the other trees from violent winds. According to the above distances proceed to stake out the ground for making the holes for the reception of the trees; which, if made to range every way, will have a very agreeable effect, and admit the currency of air and the sun's influence more effectually. In planting very extensive orchards some divide the ground into large squares of different dimensions, with intervals of, fifty feet between; serving both as walks, and for admitting a greater currency of air; in different quarters planting different sorts of fruit, as apples in one, pears in another, and plums and cherries in another, &c., and thus it may be repeated to as many quarters for each species and its varieties as may be convenient. As to the mode of planting the trees, a wide hole must be dug for each, capacious enough to receive all the roots freely every way without touching the sides. When the holes are all ready proceed to planting, one tree in each hole, a person holding the stem erect, whilst another trims in the earth, previously breaking it small, and casting it in equally all about the roots, frequently shaking the tree to cause the mould to settle close about all the smaller roots and fibres, and so as to raise the tree gradually up, that the crown of the roots may be but two or three inches below the general surface; and, when the hole is filled up, tread it gently, first round the outside, then near the stem of the tree, forming the surface a little hollow; and then if on the top of all is laid some inverted turf to the width of the holes, forming it with a sort of circular bank, three or four inches high, it will support the tree, and guard the roots from drying winds and summer's drought; observing that each tree stand perfectly upright, and that they range exactly in their proper rows. The after management consists principally in keeping the trees properly pruned and cut; as, where this is judiciously done, the trees will come into bearing sooner, and long continue in vigor. But with standard trees less culture is necessary than in other cases. No branch should ever be shortened unless for the figure of the tree, and then it should be taken off close at the separation. The more the range of branches shoot circularly, a little inclining upwards, the more equally will the sap be distributed, and the better the tree bear. The ranges of branches should not be too near each other, that the fruit and leaves may not be deprived of their full share of sun; and, where it suits, the middle of the tree should be so free from wood that no branch may cross another, but all their extremities point outwards. About October or November, or as soon as the fruit is removed, is the most proper season for this work. The The. Take off superfluous branches with a saw, and afterwards smooth the place with a knife; for it is essential that every branch that is to come off should be cut perfectly close and smooth. wounded part may then be smeared over with composition. Such branches should always be taken off as come near to the ground, that have received any material injury, where the leaves are much curled, or that have a tendency to cross the tree, or run inwards and attention may be given to the beauty of the head, leaving all the branches as nearly equidistant as possible. Where there are any remaining blotches they should be opened or scored with a knife; and where the bark is ragged, from any laceration, it should be pared gently down to the live wood: the moss should be rubbed clean off, and the trees scored. In this last operation care should be taken not to cut through the inner or white rind, which joins the bark to the wood. The young shoots, in spring, should be rubbed off, and not cut, as cutting is apt to increase the number. great enemy of apple-orchards is misletoe, and it is often permitted to become very injurious. The usual method of clearing trees from it is to pull it out with hooks in frosty weather, when brittle. A laborer is capable of clearing fifty or sixty trees in a day. Other diseases to which orchard-trees are subject are the canker, gum, mildew, and blight, which are rather to be prevented by such culture as will induce a healthy state than to be remedied by topical applications. Too much lime, Sir H. Davy thinks, will bring on the canker, and if so, the replacing a part of such soil with alluvial or vegetable earth would be of service. The gum, it is said, may be constitutional, arising from offensive matter in the soil; or local, arising from external injury. In the former case, improve the soil; in the latter, apply the knife. The mildew, it is observed by T. A. Knight and Abercrombie, may be easily subdued at its appearance by scattering flour of sulphur upon the infected parts. As this disease is now generally considered the growth of parasitical fungi, the above remedy is likely to succeed. For the blight and caterpillars Forsyth recommends burning of rotten wood, weeds, potatoe haulm, wet straw, &c., on the windward side of the trees when they are in blossom. He also recommends washing the stems and branches of all orchard trees with a mixture of fresh cowdung with urine and soap-suds, as a white-washer would wash the ceiling or walls of a room. The promised advantages are, destruction of insects and 'fine bark ;' more especially, he adds, 'when you see it necessary to take all the outer bark off Mr. Bucknell found it impossible to take off great branches of fruit-trees without leaving a stump, or improper wound: and, as it is essential that every branch be cut perfectly close and smooth, he used saws, and afterwards smoothed over the saw-cut with a knife, immediately applying his medicated tar to the wound. This tar is composed of half an ounce of corrosive sublimate, reduced to a fine powder, and put into a three-pint pipkin, with a glassful of spirits of hartshorn, and stirred well together till the sublimate is dissolved. The pipkin is then filled by degrees with common tar, and constantly stirred till the mixture is blended as intimately as possible. This composition has been found by Mr. Bucknell to answer the purposes of excluding the air, keeping off insects and vermin of every description, and of assisting the wound to heal. "In heading down old decayed apple-trees, for the sake of symmetry,' says the author of the Treatise on Fruit-trees, it will be necessary to cut at the forked branches, as near as can be to the upper side of the fork, cutting them in a sloping manner to carry off the wet, at the same time rounding the edges. The orchardist may begin at the lower branches, cutting just above the lower bark, and, proceeding upwards, cut the rest of the branches to six joints or forks, according to their strength, till he have finished cutting in the whole head. If any of these branches should have the canker all the infected part must be cut out. When the tree is all prepared, the composition must be immediately applied, beginning at the top of the tree, and finishing with the powder of wood ashes and burnt bones in descending, which will save its being rubbed off during the operation, and the composition will prevent the sun and air from injuring the naked inner bark. A tree thus prepared will, in the course of three or four years, produce more and finer fruit than a maiden tree that has been planted upwards of twenty years.' Mr. Marshall, in his Rural Economy of Gloucestershire and Herefordshire, observes that spring frosts are an enemy, against which, perhaps, it is most difficult to guard orchard trees. Dry frosts are observed to have no other effects than keeping the blossoms back; consequently are frequently serviceable to fruit-trees. But wet frosts, namely, frosts after rain or a foggy air, and before the trees have had time to dry, are very injurious even to the buds. An instance is mentioned in which a flying hazy shower in the evening was succeeded by a smart frost: that side of the trees against which the haze drove was entirely cut off; while the opposite side, which had escaped the moisture, likewise escaped the effect of the frost. The Hereford Agriculture Report insists that the pear, although, in general, producing an inferior liquor, possesses many advantages for ge neral culture, when compared with the apple. It will flourish in a greater variety of soils, is more productive, and being incapable (in those sorts which are proper for perry) to be eaten or applied to any common culinary purpose, it is little subject to be stolen, even in situations where fruit does not abound. As an ornamental tree, it possesses sufficient merit to entitle it to a place where ornament is the principal object; its form is often picturesque, and it blossoms in the spring, and its fruit in autumn is always beautiful. Every tree, when nearly full grown, will afford, in moderately good ground, an annual produce of twenty gallons of liquor (taking many years together), even at the lowest calculation. Many single trees in Herefordshire have produced a hogshead in one season, and an extraordinary tree growing on the glebe land of the parish of Hom Lacy has more than once filled fifteen hogsheads in the same year; when the branches of this tree, in its original state, became long and heavy, their extreme ends successively fell to the ground, and, taking fresh root at the several points where they touched it, each branch became a new tree, and in its turn produced others in the same way. The produce of an acre planted with apple-trees will generally be found nearly one-third less than the same quantity of ground planted with pear-trees would afford, with the exception of the halmer pear, and oldfield; but the apple tree begins to bear at an earlier age, and cider will ever be justly preferred to the juice of the pear. As an object of sight, the pear-tree has every advantage over its rival; but Mr. A. Knight is of opinion that under the system now practising, to procure new varieties, the apple-tree may, in some degree at least, acquire the recommendation of ornament, as well as use: those crossed with the Siberian crab promise to be of this description. Orchards, says Mr. Loudon, have doubtless existed in Britain for many ages as appendages to wealthy religious establishments; but as objects of farming, or field culture, they do not ap pear to have been adopted till about the beginning of the seventeenth century.? 'The most generally useful fruit that can be grown in farm orchards is the apple; next the pear; then the plum for tarts, or wine; and to these may be added the cherry, filbert, walnut, chestnut, and elder. In the cider countries where the climate is more certain than in some others, it is customary to plant but a few good sorts; and not to mix above one or two sorts together in making cider; in the northern districts, on the contrary, it is a maxim to plant a considerable number of different sorts, both of those which blossom early and late; because, should the blossoms of one variety be destroyed by a frosty wind, that of another may escape. In cold districts, it is advisable to plant orchards in sheltered hollows, exposed to the sun, and to plant thick; but in the warmer southern counties, many descriptions of rider and perry be grown to perfection in the hedge-rows, or as cultured trees in permanent pastures.' ing fruits may We are indebted to this author for the follow |